Frasers Hill : 24-28-05-25

Asiatic striped squirrels are a genus (Tamiops) of squirrels (Sciuridae) in the subfamily Callosciurinae.

They are small striped arboreal squirrels from Asia. Their head to body length measured from 10 to 13 cm often are confused with other squirrels (e.f. Funambulus or Tamias).

In contrast to these other squirrels, they have smaller rounded ears with white-tipped hairs. A black longitudinal stripe is present in the middle of the back, which is parallel on both sides with two pairs of pale longitudinal stripes. 

These pale stripes are separated by dark brownish stripes. In some countries, they are kept as pets.

The four traditionally recognized species of Asiatic striped squirrels are :

• Himalayan striped squirrel - T. mcclellandii

• Maritime striped squirrel - T. maritimus

• Cambodian striped squirrel - T. rodolphii

• Swinhoe's striped squirrel - T. swinhoei

A fifth species was described in 2022 :

• Minshan striped squirrel, T. minshanica

Asiatic striped squirrels can be identified by the differences in the stripe pattern. Swinhoe's striped squirrel (Tamiops swinhoei) is a small species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. This species is found mostly in China and Southeast Asia. Their diet consists of mostly seeds, fruits, nuts and ginger nectar.

Like most squirrels they live in forest areas with mountains, usually in groups. They have litters that average in size of 3.25 offspring. They are small bodied with stripes running from their nose to their neck and a second set that run the length of their body to their tail. The stripes range in color from yellow to brown cinnamon.

Small tufts of white fur can be seen on the tips of their ears. They have dense fur to accommodate for the high elevation where they live. Females have a longer tail than males.

Swinhoe's striped squirrel are herbivores. They eat mostly nuts, seeds, fruits, and ginger nectar. They collect their food and store it for later dates when food is scarce.

Swinhoe's striped squirrels usually breed once every six months. On average they can have 3-6 offspring in a litter, this species is found mostly in Southeast Asia, China, Vietnam, Myanmar, Hainan Island, and possibly Laos, they live in tropical rain forest, where there are many mountains, in mostly couples and groups.

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Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Rodentia

Family : Sciuridae

Subfamily : Callosciurinae

Genus : Tamiops

Species : T. swinhoei

Binomial name : Tamiops swinhoei

(A. Milne-Edwards, 1874)

Subspecies

• T. s. swinhoei

• T. s. olivaceus

• T. s. spencei

• T. s. vestitus

Frasers Hill : 04-28-05-2025

Callosciurus is a genus of squirrels collectively referred to as the "beautiful squirrels". They are found mainly in Southeast Asia, though a few species also occur in Nepal, northeastern India, Bangladesh and southern China. Several of the species have settled on islands.

In total, the genus contains 15 species and numerous varieties and subspecies. The genera Glyphotes, Rubrisciurus, and Tamiops have sometimes been included in Callosciurus.

Pallas's squirrel (Callosciurus erythraeus), also known as the red-bellied tree squirrel, is a species of squirrel native to China, Taiwan, India, and Southeast Asia. Some populations have a bright red belly, but in others it is much duller or may only have a reddish/orangish tinge.

Pallas's squirrel is a medium-sized tree squirrel, with a head-body length of 16 to 28 cm (6.3 to 11.0 in), and a tail 11 to 26 cm (4.3 to 10.2 in) in length. Both sexes are of similar size and appearance, and weigh between 310 and 460 g (11 and 16 oz). 

The colour of the pelt varies considerably between the many different subspecies, but is generally brownish on the upper body with a more reddish tint on the belly, and often with some black on the tail. The precise pattern and shades of the fur are often used to distinguish subspecies from one another, but make it difficult to distinguish the species as a whole from other, similarly variable, tree squirrel species.

Pallas's squirrel is found throughout much of southeastern Asia, including far eastern India, Bhutan, northern and eastern Myanmar, Vietnam, parts of Cambodia and Laos, much of Thailand, northern peninsular Malaysia, Taiwan, and southern and eastern China, including Hainan.

Within this region, they are found within a range of forest habitats below 3,000 m (9,800 ft) elevation, including tropical and subtropical evergreen, deciduous broadleaf and subalpine conifer woodlands.

Pallas's squirrels are primarily herbivorous, same like all tree squirrels. They eat a wide range of different foods, and have differing diets in different parts of their broad range. P. squirrels primary foodstuffs include leaves, flowers, seeds and fruit. They also eat small quantities of insects, as well as occasional bird eggs.

The squirrels breed throughout the year and may mate again as soon as they have weaned a previous litter.

Gestation lasts 47 to 49 days, and results in the birth of up to four young, with two being typical. The young leave the nest at 40 to 50 days old, and are sexually mature at one year of age. They have lived for up to 17 years in captivity.

Pallas's squirrels are diurnal and inhabit much of the forest canopy. P. squirrels construct both leaf nests 7 to 18 m (23 to 59 ft) above the ground and less commonly in burrows.

Females occupy home ranges of just 0.5 to 0.8 hectares (1.2 to 2.0 acres), which usually do not overlap, while males occupy much larger ranges of 1.3 to 3.8 ha (3.2 to 9.4 acres), which overlap with those of both nearby males and females.

Like many other squirrels, they have been observed to cache acorns in the autumn. The squirrels make calls to warn neighbours of predators, and have been observed to mob tree-climbing snakes, with females protecting young being particularly likely to join in. Males also make loud calls both prior to and after mating.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Rodentia

Family : Sciuridae

Genus : Callosciurus

Species : C. erythraeus

Binomial name : Callosciurus erythraeus

(Pallas, 1779)

Lutrogale was proposed as generic name by John Edward Gray in 1865 for otters with a convex forehead and nose, using the smooth-coated otter L. perspicillata as type species. 

The smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) is an otter species occurring in most of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with a disjunct population in Iraq. ​As its name indicates, the fur of this species is smoother and shorter than that of other otter species.

The smooth-coated otter is a relatively large otter, from 7 to 11 kg (15 to 24 lb) in weight and 59 to 64 cm (23 to 25 in) in head-body length, with a tail 37 to 43 cm (15 to 17 in) long. 

It is distinguished from other otter species by its more rounded head and a hairless nose in the shape of a distorted diamond. Its tail is flattened, in contrast to the more rounded tails of other otters. Its legs are short and strong, with large webbed feet bearing strong claws. 

As its name suggests, it has unusually short and sleek fur; this is dark to reddish brown along the back, while the underside is light brown to almost grey in color. Females have two pairs of teats.

The smooth-coated otter has been recorded in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, southwest China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesian islands of Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and Brunei. An isolated population is also found in the marshes of Iraq.

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It occurs in areas where fresh water is plentiful — wetlands and seasonal swamps, rivers, lakes, and rice paddies. Where it is the only occurring otter species, it lives in almost any suitable habitat. But where it is sympatric with other otter species, it avoids smaller streams and canals in favour of larger water bodies.

Although it is often found in saltwater near the coast, especially on smaller islands, it requires a nearby source of fresh water. Smooth-coated otters are social and hunt in groups. They are mainly diurnal, and have a short lull in activity during midday.

They spend the night in dens dug in dense vegetation, under tree roots, or among boulders. They use scent to communicate both within the otter species, and with other animals. Each otter possesses a pair of scent glands at the base of the tail which are used to mark land or objects, such as rocks or vegetation, near feeding areas in a behavior called sprainting. 

They also communicate through vocalisations such as whistles, chirps, and wails. Some may construct permanent holts near water, in a layout similar to that of a beaver dam, with an underwater entrance and a tunnel that leads to a nest above the water.

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Fish comprise over 70% of their diet, but they also eat reptiles, frogs, insects, crustaceans, and small mammals. Especially in areas where other species of otter are also found, they prefer larger fish, typically between 5 and 30 cm (2.0 and 11.8 in) in length. They sometimes hunt in groups.

The smooth-coated otter is a protected species in most range countries and listed globally as a vulnerable species. It had been listed on CITES Appendix II since 1977. Since August 2019, it is included in CITES Appendix I, thus strengthening its protection in regards to international trade.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Carnivora

Family : Mustelidae

Genus : Lutrogale

Species : L. perspicillata

Binomial name : Lutrogale perspicillata

(I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826)

Lower Pierce Reservoir : 21-08-24

Horseshoe bats are bats in the family Rhinolophidae. In addition to the single living genus, Rhinolophus, which has about 106 species, the extinct genus Palaeonycteris has been recognized.

Horseshoe bats are closely related to the Old World leaf-nosed bats, family Hipposideridae, which have sometimes been included in Rhinolophidae.

The horseshoe bats are divided into six subgenera and many species groups. The most recent common ancestor of all horseshoe bats lived 34–40 million years ago, though it is unclear where the geographic roots of the family are, and attempts to determine its biogeography have been indecisive.

Their taxonomy is complex, as genetic evidence shows the likely existence of many cryptic species, as well as species recognized as distinct that may have little genetic divergence from previously recognized taxa.

They are found in the Old World, mostly in tropical or subtropical areas, including Africa, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. Horseshoe bats are considered small or medium-sized microbats, weighing 4–28 g (0.14–0.99 oz),

with forearm lengths of 30–75 mm (1.2–3.0 in) and combined lengths of head and body of 35–110 mm (1.4–4.3 in).

The fur, long and smooth in most species, can be reddish-brown, blackish, or bright orange-red. They get their common name from their large nose-leafs, which are shaped like horseshoes.

The nose-leafs aid in echolocation; horseshoe bats have highly sophisticated echolocation, using constant frequency calls at high-duty cycles to detect prey in areas of high environmental clutters.

They hunt insects and spiders, swooping down on prey from a perch, or gleaning from foliage. Little is known about their mating systems, but at least one species is monogamous, while another is polygynous.

Gestation is approximately seven weeks and one offspring is produced at a time. A typical lifespan is six or seven years, but one greater horseshoe bat lived more than thirty years.

Horseshoe bats are relevant to humans in some regions as a source of disease, as food, and for traditional medicine. Several species are the natural reservoirs of various SARS-related coronaviruses, and data strongly suggests they are a reservoir of SARS-CoV, though humans may face more exposure risk from intermediate hosts such as masked palm civets.

They are hunted for food in several regions, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, but also Southeast Asia. Some species or their guano are used in traditional medicine in Nepal, India, Vietnam, and Senegal. Like most bats, horseshoe bats have two mammary glands on their chests.

Adult females additionally have two teat-like projections on their abdomens, called pubic nipples or false nipples, which are not connected to mammary glands.

Only a few other bat families have pubic nipples, including Hipposideridae, Craseonycteridae,

Megadermatidae, and Rhinopomatidae; they serve as attachment points for their offspring.

In a few horseshoe bat species, males have a false nipple in each armpit. All horseshoe bats have large, leaf-like protuberances on their noses, which are called nose-leafs. The nose-leafs are important in species identification, and are composed of several parts.

The front of the nose-leaf resembles and is called a horseshoe, earning them the common name of "horseshoe bats". The horseshoe is above the upper lip and is thin and flat.

The lancet is triangular, pointed, and pocketed, and points up between the bats' eyes. The sella is a flat, ridge-like structure at the center of the nose. It rises from behind the nostrils and points out perpendicular from the head. Their ears are large and leaf-shaped, nearly as broad as they are long, and lack tragi. The antitragi of the ears are conspicuous.

Their eyes are very small. The skull always has a rostral inflation, or bony protrusion on the snout. The typical dental formula of a horseshoe bat is 1.1.2.32.1.3.3, but the middle lower premolars are often missing, as well as the anterior upper premolars (premolars towards the front of the mouth)

The young lose their milk teeth while still in utero with the teeth resorbed into the body. They are born with the four permanent canine teeth erupted, which enables them to cling to their mothers. This is atypical among bat families, as most newborns have at least some milk teeth at birth, which are quickly replaced by the permanent set.

Horeshoe bats have very small eyes and their field of vision is limited by their large nose-leafs, thus vision is unlikely to be a very important sense. Instead, they use echolocation to navigate, employing some of the most sophisticated echolocation of any bat group.

To echolocate, they produce sound through their nostrils. While some bats use frequency-modulated echolocation, horseshoe bats use constant-frequency echolocation (also known as single-frequency echolocation).

They have high duty cycles, meaning that when individuals are calling, they are producing sound more than 30% of the time. The use of high duty constant-frequency echolocation aids in distinguishing prey items based on size. These echolocation characteristics are typical of bats that search for moving prey items in cluttered environments full of foliage.

They echolocate at particularly high frequencies for bats, though not as high as hipposiderids relative to their body sizes, and the majority concentrate most of the echolocation energy into the second harmonic.

Horseshoe bats have sophisticated senses of hearing due to their well-developed cochlea and are able to detect Doppler-shifted echoes. This allows them to produce and receive sounds simultaneously. Within horseshoe bats, there is a negative relationship between ear length and echolocation frequency.

Species with higher echolocation frequencies tend to have shorter ear lengths. During echolocation, the ears can move independently of each other in a "flickering" motion characteristic of the family, while the head simultaneously moves up and down or side to side.

Horseshoe bats are insectivorous, though consume other arthropods such as spiders, and employ two main foraging strategies. The first strategy is flying slow and low over the ground, hunting among trees and bushes. Some species who use this strategy are able to hover over prey and glean them from the substrate.

The other strategy is known as perch feeding. Individuals roost on feeding perches and wait for prey to fly past, then fly out to capture it. Various levels of sociality are seen in horseshoe bats. Some species are solitary, with individuals roosting alone, while others are highly colonial, forming aggregations of thousands of individuals.

The majority of species are moderately social. In some species, the sexes segregate annually when females form maternity colonies, though the sexes remain together all year in others.

Individuals hunt solitarily. Because their hind limbs are poorly developed, they cannot scuttle on flat surfaces nor climb adeptly like other bats. Horseshoe bats enter torpor to conserve energy. During torpor, their body temperature drops to as low as 16 °C (61 °F) and their metabolic rates slow.

Torpor is employed by horseshoe bats in temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical regions. Torpor has a short duration; when torpor is employed consistently for days, weeks, or months, it is known as hibernation.

Hibernation is used by horseshoe bats in temperate regions during the winter months. The trefoil horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus trifoliatus) is a species of bat in the family Rhinolophidae. It is found in Brunei, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, and Thailand. In Borneo locally common up to 1,800m, including mangroves.

Rhinolophus trifoliatus is a medium-sized horseshoe bat with a forearm length of 47–52 mm (1.9–2.0 in) and weight of 10.5–18 g (0.37–0.63 oz). This bat has fluffy, pale grey fur, with a yellow nose-leaf and ear

membranes.

R. trifoliatus is caught in the understory of primary and secondary rainforest. This species is thought to be solitary, with individuals observed roosting underneath exposed leaves. As with the neotropical Honduran white bat it is thought that their pale fur may be an adaptation to make them camouflaged when roosting, as sunlight filtering through the leaf will make them appear green.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Chiroptera

Family : Rhinolophidae

Genus : Rhinolophus

Species : R. trifoliatus

Binomial name : Rhinolophus trifoliatus

Temminck, 1834

Hampstead wetlands park : 30-6-25

Pteropus (suborder Yinpterochiroptera) is a genus of megabats which are among the largest bats in the world. They are commonly known as fruit bats or flying foxes, among other colloquial names. They live in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, East Africa, and some oceanic islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are at least 60 extant species in the genus.

Flying foxes eat fruit and other plant matter, and occasionally consume insects as well. They locate resources with their keen sense of smell. Most, but not all, are nocturnal. They navigate with keen eyesight, as they cannot echolocate. They have long life spans and low reproductive outputs, with females of most species producing only one offspring per year.

Flying foxes are often persecuted for their real or perceived role in damaging crops, infact they are ecologically beneficial by assisting in the regeneration of forests via seed dispersal. They benefit ecosystems and human interests by pollinating plants.

Flying fox species vary in body weight, ranging from 120–1,600 g (0.26–3.53 lb). Across all species, males are usually larger than females. The large flying fox has the longest forearm length and reported wingspan of any bat species but some bat species exceed it in weight. Its wingspan is up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in), and it can weigh up to 1.1 kg (2+1⁄2 lb).

The Indian and great flying foxes are heavier, at 1.6 and 1.45 kg (3+1⁄2 and 3+1⁄4 lb), respectively. Outside this genus, the giant golden-crowned flying fox (genus Acerodon) is the only bat with similar dimensions.

Most flying fox species are considerably smaller and generally weigh less than 600 g (21 oz). Smaller species such as the masked, Temminck's, Guam, and dwarf flying foxes all weigh less than 170 g (6 oz).

Flying foxes have large hearts and a relatively fast heart rate: resting individuals have a heart rate of 100–400 beats per minute. Flying foxes have simple digestive tracts, the time between ingestion and excretion is as short as 12 minutes. They lack both a cecum and an appendix. The stomach has marked cardiac and fundic regions.

Flying foxes display behaviors that indicate a reliance on long-term information storage. Though they have wide-ranging movements and cover thousands of square kilometers annually, they are consistently able to locate the same resource patches and roosts.

Flying foxes rely heavily on their sense of smell. They have large olfactory bulbs to process scents. They use scent to locate food, for mothers to locate their pups, and for mates to locate each other.

Males have enlarged androgen-sensitive sebaceous glands on their shoulders that they use for scent-marking their territories, particularly during the mating season.

The secretions of these glands vary by species—of the 65 chemical compounds isolated from the glands of four species, no compound was found in all species. Males also engage in "urine washing", meaning that they coat themselves in their own urine.

Flying foxes do not echolocate, and therefore rely on sight to navigate. Their eyes are relatively large and positioned on the front of their heads, giving them binocular vision. Like most mammals, though not primates, they are dichromatic. They have both rods and cones, they have "blue" cones that detect short-wavelength light and "green" cones that detect medium-to-long-wavelengths.

The rods greatly outnumber the cones, however, as cones comprise only 0.5% of photoreceptors. Flying foxes are adapted to seeing in low-light conditions. Many species of flying fox are polygynandrous, meaning that each individual will mate with several other individuals.

The Samoa flying fox is a notable exception because it is monogamous. Flying fox sexual behaviors include oral sex in addition to intercourse with fellatio and cunnilingus observed between opposite sexes, as well as homosexual fellatio in at least one species, the Bonin flying fox.

Opposite-sex oral sex is associated with increased duration of intercourse, while same-sex fellatio is hypothesized to encourage colony formation of otherwise-antagonistic males in colder climates.

Flying fox gestation length varies among species; gestation length is 140–190 days (4.6–6.3 months). Females have a litter size of one young at a time, called a pup. Pups are altricial and sparsely furred at birth, thereby dependent on their mothers for care. Pups are relatively small at birth, weighing approximately 12% of the mother's weight. Bats in other genera can have pups that weigh as much as 30% of the mother's weight at birth.

Females carry the pups for the first several weeks of life. After this, the females may leave the pups behind at the roost at night while they forage, as with nearly all bat species, males do not assist females in parental care.

Pups fledge beginning at 3 months old, but may not be weaned until 4–6 months old. Pups may stay with their mothers until age one.

Flying foxes do not reach sexual maturity until 1.5–2 years old. Females can have up to two litters annually, though one is the norm due to the long weaning period.

Most flying foxes are seasonal breeders and give birth in the spring. Females remain fertile with no decrease in reproductive capability for at least the first 12 or 13 years of life.

Flying foxes, like all bats, are long-lived relative to their size. In the wild, average lifespans are likely 15 years. However, individuals part of populations that face excessive disturbance may have lifespans as short as 7.1 years. In captivity, individuals can live approximately 20–28 years.

Flying foxes consume 25–35% of their body weight daily. They are generalists that will consume a variety of items to meet their nutritional needs. Food items include fruit, flowers, nectar, and leaves. They will sometimes deliberately consume insects such as cicadas as well.

The majority of flying fox species are nocturnal and forage at night. A few island species and subspecies are diurnal, however, hypothesized as a response to a lack of predators. 

As they forage on fruit, flying foxes will compress the fruit against the palate with the tongue to squeeze out and consume the juices. The rest of the fruit is then discarded in "ejecta pellets. Flying foxes have important roles as seed dispersers and pollinators. They help spread the seeds in the fruit they eat by discarding them in ejecta pellets or through their guano. 

Even though flying foxes can have a gut transit time as fast as 12 minutes, seeds can be retained in the gut for as long as 20 hours. As the flying foxes travel large distances, seeds can be deposited up to 20 km (12 mi) from the parent tree.

They are particularly important in fragmented forests, as many other frugivores are terrestrial and often confined to forest fragments. Flying foxes have the capability to spread seeds beyond the forest fragments through flight.

All species of Pteropus are placed on Appendix II of CITES and 10 on Appendix I, which restricts international trade. Individual species have different legal protections from hunting and domestic trade that reflect the environmental laws of the countries where they are found.

The large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus, formerly Pteropus giganteus), also known as the greater flying fox, Malayan flying fox, Malaysian flying fox, large fruit bat, kalang, or kalong, is a southeast Asian species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae.

Despite its scientific name, it feeds exclusively on fruits, nectar, and flowers, like the other flying foxes of the genus Pteropus. It is noted for being one of the largest bats. As with nearly all other Old World fruit bats, it lacks the ability to echolocate but compensates for it with well-developed eyesight.

The large flying fox is among the largest species of bat. It weighs 0.65–1.1 kg (1.4–2.4 lb) and has a wingspan of up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in).

Its head-body length is 27–32 cm (11–13 in). Its forearm length is 180–220 mm (7.1–8.7 in). As is common with most megabats, it has a fox-like face. It lacks a tail and has pointed ears.

The hairs on much of its body are long and woolly, but are shorter and more erect on the upper back. The mantle hairs tend to be the longest. The color and texture of the coat differ between sexes and age classes.

Males tend to have slightly stiffer and thicker coats than females. Immature individuals are almost all dull gray-brown. Young have a dark-colored mantle that becomes lighter in males when they mature.

The head has hairs that range in color from mahogany-red and orange-ochreous to blackish. The ventral areas are brown or blackish, tinged with chocolate, gray or silver. The mantle can vary from pale dirty-buff to orange-yellow, while the chest is usually dark-golden brown or dark russet.

The large flying fox has a large and robust skull. The dental formula is 2.1.3.22.1.3.3. It has a total of 34 teeth. The large flying fox's wings are short and somewhat rounded at the tips. This allows them to fly slowly, but with great maneuverability. The wing membranes are only haired near the body.

Colonies of large flying foxes fly in a scattered stream. They may fly up to 50 km (31 mi) to their feeding grounds in one night. Vocalizations are not made during flight.

The large flying fox ranges from Malay Peninsula, to the Philippines in the east and Indonesian Archipelago of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Timor in the south.

In certain areas, the bat prefers coastal regions, but it can also be found at elevations up to 1,370 m (4,490 ft

Flying foxes inhabit primary forest, mangrove forest, coconut groves, mixed fruit orchards, and a number of other habitats. During the day, trees in mangrove forests and coconut groves may be used as roosts.

The large flying fox is a natural reservoir of the Nipah virus. It is generally considered as the reservoir that led to the 1998 Malaysian outbreak, which was the first emergence of the disease in humans and pigs.

As of 2022, the large flying fox is evaluated as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It meets the criteria for this designation because it is likely experiencing significant population decline.

The bushmeat trade is resulting in unsustainable harvest of this species. Additionally, it is experiencing habitat loss through deforestation. The large flying fox is on Appendix II of CITES, which restricts international trade.

One threat to the large flying fox is habitat destruction. Flying foxes are sometimes hunted for food, and the controls on hunting seem to be unenforceable.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Chiroptera

Family : Pteropodidae

Genus : Pteropus

Species : P. vampyrus

Binomial name : Pteropus vampyrus

(Linnaeus, 1758)

OUTR : 3-2-2024

Viverridae is a family of small to medium-sized, feliform mammals. The viverrids comprise 33 species placed in 14 genera. This family was named and first described by John Edward Gray in 1821.

Viverrids occur all over Africa, southern Europe, and South and Southeast Asia, across the Wallace Line.

Almost all viverrids outside the subfamily Genettinae are commonly called civets, but some civets are not viverrids.

Animals of the subfamily Genettinae are known as genets and oyans. The word viverridae comes from the Latin viverra 'ferret', but ferrets are in a different family, the Mustelidae.

Viverrids have four or five toes on each foot and half-retractile claws. They have six incisors in each jaw and molars with two tubercular grinders behind in the upper jaw, and one in the lower jaw. The tongue is rough with sharp prickles. A pouch or gland occurs beneath the anus, but there is no cecum.

Viverrids are the most primitive of all the families of feliform Carnivora and clearly less specialized than the Felidae. In external characteristics, they are distinguished from the Felidae by the longer muzzle and tuft of facial vibrissae between the lower jaw bones, and by the shorter limbs and the five-toed hind foot with the first digit present.

The skull differs by the position of the postpalatine foramina on the maxilla, almost always well in advance of the maxillopalatine suture, and usually about the level of the second premolar, and by the distinct external division of the auditory bulla into its two elements either by a definite groove or when rarely this is obliterated, by the depression of the tympanic bone in front of the swollen entotympanic.

The typical dental formula is: 3.1.4.2 / 3.1.4.2, but the number may be reduced, although never to the same extent as in the Felidae. Their flesh-shearing carnassial teeth are relatively undeveloped compared to those of other feliform carnivorans. Most viverrid species have a penis bone (a baculum).

Arctogalidia trivirgata, The small-toothed palm civet also known as the three-striped palm civet, is a viverrid native to dense forests of Southeast Asia, from the Assam district of India to Indochina and the Malay Peninsula and on Sumatra, Bangka, Java, Borneo, and numerous small nearby islands of Indonesia.

The first scientific description by John Edward Gray in 1832 was based on a zoological specimen from the Maluku Islands in the collection of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden, Netherlands.

It is blackish grey, has black paws and three black longitudinal stripes on the back.

A monotypic genus, Arctogalidia means ‘bear-weasel’ (from ancient Greek arkto- ‘bear’ + galidia ‘little weasel’). The specific epithet trivirgata means ‘three-striped’ in Latin.

The small-toothed palm civet is mid-sized by the standards of its family, weighing 2.4 kg (5.3 lb) and measuring 53 cm (21 in) long along the body, plus a tail of 58 cm (23 in). It has short fur that is generally a tawny or buff color while the head is a darker greyish tawny. Its muzzle is brown with a white streak that extends from the nose to the forehead. Only the females have the perineal scent gland, located near the vulva.

The diet is varied and omnivorous, and usually consists of insects, small mammals, nesting birds, fruits, frogs and lizards. Matching the habits of other palm civets, this species is solitary, arboreal and nocturnal. 

Its gestation period is 45 days, and the average litter size is 3, which are born in dens made in the trees.

Young open their eyes at 11 days and are weaned at two months. It can have two litters a year and there is no set mating season. 

Arctogalidia trivirgata, the small-toothed palm civet can live for 11 to 12 years. The small-toothed palm civet is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.

The conservation status of the small-toothed palm civet is frequently debated, as sightings of the animal are rare making it difficult to establish a population estimate. It is threatened primarily by deforestation, the population is thought to be decreasing. Illegal use of protected land for agriculture also contributes to loss of habitat. 

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Carnivora

Suborder : Feliformia

Family : Viverridae

Subfamily : Paradoxurinae

Genus : Arctogalidia

Merriam, 1897

Species : A. trivirgata

Binomial name : Arctogalidia trivirgata

(Gray, 1832)

Dec 2023 : Sakol Nakhon village temple ground.

Callosciurus is a genus of squirrels collectively referred to as the "beautiful squirrels". They are found mainly in Southeast Asia, though a few species also occur in Nepal, northeastern India, Bangladesh and southern China. Several of the species have settled on islands. In total, the genus contains 15 species and numerous varieties and subspecies. The genera Glyphotes, Rubrisciurus, and Tamiops have sometimes been included in Callosciurus.

There are approximately 15 species in this genus and over 60 subspecies. These squirrels range in length from 13 to 27 cm (5.1 to 10.6 in), not including the tail which is often about the same length as the body. Most are rather dull olive-brown to gray and several have a pale and dark stripe on their side, however a few are very colorful.

Most squirrels in Callosciurus live in tropical rain forests, but some individuals live in parks and gardens in cities. In the trees, they build their nests out of plant material. They are solitary, and give birth to one to five young. Their food consists of nuts, fruits, and seeds, and also of insects and bird eggs.

Finlayson's squirrel or the variable squirrel (Callosciurus finlaysonii) is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is found in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. It has numerous subspecies that vary greatly in appearance and it occurs in a wide range of wooded habitats, including gardens and parks in cities like Bangkok. It was named in honour of the Scottish naturalist and traveller George Finlayson.

The Finlayson's squirrel has a head-and-body length of about 21–22 cm (8.3–8.7 in) and its tail is about 22–24 cm (8.7–9.4 in) long. Like other squirrels of its genus (the "beautiful squirrels", Callosciurus), Finlayson's squirrel is normally a canopy-dweller, feeding mainly on fruit. Field evidence suggests that it has the usual form of dichromatic mammalian color vision, which may enable it to discriminate ripe from unripe fruits.

Tree squirrels are the members of the squirrel family (Sciuridae) commonly just referred to as "squirrels". They include more than 100 arboreal species native to all continents except Antarctica and Oceania.

They do not form a single natural, or monophyletic, group, they are variously related to others in the squirrel family, including ground squirrels, flying squirrels, marmots, and chipmunks.

The defining characteristic used to determine which species of Sciuridae are tree squirrels is dependent on their habitat rather than their physiology. Tree squirrels live mostly among trees, as opposed to those that live in burrows in the ground or among rocks.

An exception is the flying squirrel that also makes its home in trees, but has a physiological distinction separating it from its tree squirrel cousins: special flaps of skin called patagia, acting as glider wings, which allow gliding flight.

Squirrels come in a variety of different colors. So, what causes white squirrels and just how rare are they in the world today?

There are two basic types of white squirrels : albino and leucistic. 

Albinos have pink or blue eyes and no dark pigments anywhere on their bodies. 

Squirrels that have white coats and dark eyes are called leucistic. 

Another type of white squirrel is predominantly white and sports a dark head patch and stripe on its back.

White squirrels are not a species of their own such as fox squirrels or the Mexican gray squirrel. Instead, white squirrels are most often members of the eastern gray squirrel species, Sciurus carolinensis.

A white squirrel is not merely a squirrel that has white integrated into its fur colors. Instead, these creatures are unusually white for a few different reasons.

One option is that squirrels could have greatly reduced pigmentation in their fur due to leucism. As a result, they have all white fur except for the dorsal stripe of gray fur that runs down the length of their bodies.

Albino gray squirrels are the rarest form of white squirrel. Mammalogists estimate that the odds of a female gray squirrel giving birth to an albino offspring are 1 in 100,000.

The scarcity of albino squirrels is thought to be at least partially linked to the animal’s lack of any dark eye pigment : This leaves them more susceptible to the harmful effects of sun rays, which can permanently damage their eyes. In turn, their poor eyesight makes them more likely to suffer injury and death by falling out of trees.

To be clear, white squirrels are not albino. Albino squirrels are very different because albinism impacts their melanin production. As a result, they have red or pink eyes in most cases. When most people talk about white squirrels, they are referring to the leucistic ones and not the albino ones.

White squirrels exist due to leucism in existing squirrel species. Leucism is when an animal has a partial loss of pigmentation. Most mammals can be leucistic.

In this case, leucism comes as a result of a mutated gene in the animals causing them to have greatly reduced pigmentation in their fur but not changes in other parts of their body like that seen with albinism.

The expression of this recessive allele is very rare. In fact, it’s much rarer to see a white squirrel than it is to see a melanistic black squirrel.

In North America, the eastern gray squirrel is one of the species that most often appears white. White squirrels are not a natural occurrence in the sense that no squirrel species are entirely white, at least in North America. 

Some tree squirrels in Thailand are white. White squirrels are not even entirely white. They often have a gray patch on the crown of their heads along with a gray stripe on the top of their bodies.

Finlayson's squirrel or the variable squirrel (Callosciurus finlaysonii, leucistic squirrels sometimes misspelled C. finlaysoni) is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is found in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.

The species occurs in a wide range of wooded habitats, including gardens and parks in cities like Bangkok. 

It was named in honour of the Scottish naturalist and traveller George Finlayson.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Rodentia

Suborder : Sciuromorpha

Family : Sciuridae

Fischer de Waldheim, 1817

Genus : Callosciurus

Species : C. finlaysonii

Binomial name : Callosciurus finlaysonii

(Horsfield, 1823)

Pulau ubin : 5-11-23

Tragulus is a genus of even-toed ungulates in the family Tragulidae that are known as mouse-deer.

In Ancient Greek τράγος (tragos) means a male goat, while the Latin diminutive –ulus means 'tiny'. With a weight of 0.7–8.0 kg (1.5–17.6 lb) and a length of 40–75 cm (16–30 in), they are the smallest ungulates in the world, though the largest species of mouse-deer surpass some species of Neotragus antelopes in size.

The mouse-deer are restricted to Southeast Asia from far southern China (south Yunnan) to the Philippines (Balabac) and Java. Following recent taxonomic changes, several of the species in this genus are poorly known, but all are believed to be mainly nocturnal and feed on leaves, fruits, grasses, and other vegetation in the dense forest undergrowth.

They are solitary or live in pairs, and the males have elongated canine teeth (neither gender has horns or antlers) that are used in fights. Unlike other members of their family, the Tragulus mouse-deer lack obvious pale stripes/spots on their upper parts.

Traditionally, only two species of mouse-deer in the genus Tragulus have been recognized : The relatively large T. napu and the small T. javanicus.

Following a review in 2004, T. nigricans and T. versicolor were split from T. napu, and T. kanchil and 

T. williamsoni were split from T. javanicus. With these changes, T. kanchil and T. napu are the most widespread species, while the remaining have far smaller distributions (though some uncertainty over the exact distribution limits of the various species in Indochina remain).

The greater mouse-deer, greater Malay chevrotain, or napu (Tragulus napu) is a species of even-toed ungulate in the family Tragulidae found in Sumatra, Borneo, and smaller Malaysian and Indonesian

islands, and in southern Myanmar, southern Thailand and peninsular Malaysia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical, moist, lowland forest.

The greater mouse-deer is an even-toed ungulate. Although very small for an ungulate, the greater mouse-deer is one of the largest members of its genus. It is rivalled in size by Williamson's mouse-deer. It weighs 5 to 8 kg (11 to 18 lb). Its head-and-body length is 70 to 75 cm (2.30 to 2.46 ft) and its tail length is 8 to 10 cm (3.1 to 3.9 in). Its shoulder height is about 30 to 35 cm (12 to 14 in) It has a small, triangular head with a small, pointed, black nose and large eyes. Its long legs are as thin as a pencil.

The hind legs are visibly longer than the front legs. The body is rounded. The fur on the upper part of its body is grey-buff to orange-buff. On the sides, the fur is quite pale, but darker along the midline. It is white underneath, more specifically on the neck, stomach, chest, and chin. The male has neither horns nor antlers, but has small "tusks" – elongated canines in the upper jaws.

Thought to be regionally extinct in Singapore, they were rediscovered on an offshore island in 2008. Reports of its occurrence elsewhere are probably incorrect. They are terrestrial, but spend time in wet, swampy areas.

The greater mouse-deer is solitary and nocturnal. It uses small trails through thick brush in the forest.

When the male is ready to mate, he rubs a large gland on his lower jaw against the female to determine whether she is ready to mate. If she is not ready, she responds by walking away. 

The male is very territorial, marking his territory with feces, urine, and secretions from the intermandibular gland under the chin. When angry, the male beats the ground with his hooves.

They are rather trusting but delicate animals. They feed on fallen fruits, aquatic plants, buds, leaves, shrubs and grasses. Greater mouse-deer breed throughout the year, the female spends most of her adult life pregnant. They usually produce one young per birth, after a gestation of 152–155 days. 

Newborn animals are well-developed and immediately able to stand, they are fully active after 30 minutes. The young stand on three legs while nursing. Both male and female become mature at age 4½ months. Their lifespan is up to 14 years. The major threats to T. napu are overhunting by humans and loss of habitat through rapid deforestation.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Artiodactyla

Family : Tragulidae

Genus : Tragulus

Species : T. napu

Binomial name : Tragulus napu

(F. Cuvier, 1822)

The Sunda slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) or greater slow loris is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris native to Indonesia, West Malaysia, southern Thailand and Singapore. The species is generally solitary. 

Slow lorises (genus Nycticebus) are strepsirrhine primates and are related to other living lorisoids, such as the pygmy slow loris (Xanthonycticebus), slender lorises (Loris), pottos (Perodicticus), false pottos (Pseudopotto), angwantibos (Arctocebus), and galagos (family Galagidae), and to the lemurs of Madagascar.

They are most closely related to the pygmy slow loris, followed by the slender lorises of South Asia, the angwantibos, pottos and false pottos of Central and West Africa.

Lorisoids are thought to have evolved in Africa, where most living species occur, later, one group may have migrated to Asia and evolved into the slender and slow lorises of today.

The Sunda slow loris is nocturnal and arboreal, typically occurring in evergreen forests. It prefers rainforests with continuous dense canopies and has an extremely low metabolic rate compared to other mammals of its size. Slow lorises move slowly and deliberately, making little or no noise, and when threatened, they stop moving and remain motionless.

Slow lorises have stout bodies, it measures 27 to 38 cm (11 to 15 in) from head to tail and weighs between 599 and 685 g (21.1 and 24.2 oz) it has a wet nose (rhinarium), a round head, small ears hidden in thick fur, a flat face, large eyes and a vestigial tail.

The limbs are thick and short, with nails on the fingers and toes, only the second toe of the hind limb has claws, and the second finger of the forelimb is degenerated, leaving only a short one refer to. The ears are small, sparsely covered in hair, and hidden in the fur. 

Similar to the slender lorises, the fur around and directly above the eyes is dark. Unlike the slender lorises, however, the white stripe that separates the eye rings broadens both on the tip of the nose and on the forehead while also fading out on the forehead.

Like other strepsirrhine primates, the nose and lip are covered by a moist skin called the rhinarium ("wet nose"), which is a sense organ. The eyes of slow lorises are forward-facing, which gives stereo vision. Their eyes are large and possess a reflective layer, called the tapetum lucidum, that improves low-light vision to help them see better at night. It is possible that this layer blurs the images they see, as the reflected light may interfere with the incoming light.

Slow lorises have monochromatic vision, meaning they see in shades of only one color. They lack the

opsin gene that would allow them to detect short wavelength light, which includes the colors blue and green. It has strong grasping hands and feet with opposable thumbs and big toes, allowing it to grip tree branches very tightly.

N.coucang is Omnivore. Their diet consists of bird eggs, small vertebrates, fruit, sap, floral nectar, and arthropods. They are also known to feed on molluscs, including the giant land snail Achatina fulica. It will

feed on exudates such as gum and sap by licking wounds in trees.

Slow lorises are the only venomous primate known to secrete a brown oil in their underarms when threatened, which mixes with saliva to create a poisonous substance (the oil and saliva are also toxic themselves) . 

Toxins are obtained by eating poisonous insects, such as centipedes and scorpions. Slow lorises have a toxic bite due to a toxin that is produced by licking a gland on their inner elbow, the brachial organ. Saliva from the slow loris is required to activate the secretion from the arm gland. However, very little else is known about the chemical nature of the toxin.

The slow loris bite is reported to be painful in humans with symptoms including burning of the tongue and throat, hypotension, muscle convulsions, heart and respiratory problems, unconsciousness, and even death through anaphylaxis shock.

Treatment :

Vaccination against tetanus and antibiotics is often given to bite victims. Treatment is symptomatic for bites and anaphylaxis.

Though N.coucang are mainly known to be solitary it may fit into the monogamous single male / single female social system with the offspring living with the parents. It sleeps during the day, rolled up in a ball in hidden parts of trees above the ground, often on branches, twigs, palm fronds, or lianas.

The species is polyoestrous, usually giving birth to a single offspring after a gestation period of 192 days. The young disperses between 16 and 27 months, generally when it is sexually mature.

A slow loris is born with its eyes open and already has the strength and ability to hold onto branches. Following birth, it will stay with its mother everyday for about 7 weeks. The baby slow loris clings to the stomach of the mother wherever she goes, except for when she is searching for food. 

When the mother goes out in search of food, she cleans her babies first. This is not a normal cleaning though, venom from the mother mixes with saliva and gets spread on the young, which will keep them safe if a predator finds them.

It will nurse for about 6 months, but it is able to eat solid food within 4 weeks following birth. Infants grow and can crawl through the trees by the age of 2 weeks.

In less that a year, an adolescent slow loris is able to fend for itself and has not developed any sexual dimorphism (differences between genders) by weight.

As a loris grows older, it can show some sexual dimorphism with males being slightly heavier than the females. On average, Nycticebus coucang grow to be about 15 inches long, have 1 inch vestigial tails, and can weight about 3 pounds. They have the ability to live to 20 years of age, and can slightly exceed that age in captivity.

The species is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened with extinction due to a growing demand in the exotic pet trade, and has become one of the most abundant primate species on sale at Indonesian pet markets.

The common name, Sunda slow loris, refers to the Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the western part of the Malay archipelago where it is found. Another common name for the species is the greater slow loris.

The specific name, coucang, derives from kukang, its common name in Indonesia. It is commonly known as malu-malu, meaning "shy" in Indonesian, and also as bukang or Kalamasan. It is sometimes called kuskus, because local people do not distinguish between the slow loris and cuscus which belong to a group of Australasian possums.

In Malaysia they are sometimes known as kongkang or kera duku, kera is Malay for monkey while duku is the

fruit-bearing tree, Lansium parasiticum. In Thailand, it is called ling lom (ลิงลม), which translates as "wind monkey".

The Sunda slow loris has dark rings around its large eyes, a white nose with a whitish strip that extends to the forehead and a dark stripe that stretches from the back of the head along the spine.

Its soft, thick, woolly fur ranges from light brown to deep reddish brown, with a lighter underside. The species is distinct from the Bengal slow loris due to the dark inverse teardrop markings around the eyes which meet the dark dorsal stripe on the back of the head. 

It tends to have a much more distinct white stripe between the eyes, more distinct dark coloring around the eyes, and a browner coat than the Bengal slow loris which is larger, grayer, and shows less contrast.

The Sunda slow loris has less white facial coloring than the much smaller pygmy slow loris. Local color variations are known to occur. The vestigial tail, hidden beneath the fur, is reduced to a stump. It has a toothcomb, six forward-facing teeth on the bottom jaw, which includes the lower incisors and the canine teeth. The structure is generally used for grooming in other strepsirhine primates, but lorises also use it to scrape off gum when foraging.

It has a shortened second digit, and the hands have a strong grip. Like other lorises, it excretes a strong

lsmelling liquid from glands beneath its arms which is used in communication.

One major distinguishing feature between all loris species is locomotion, the Sunda slow loris moves slowly through trees on all four limbs, typically with three limbs attached to a support at a time. Its movement has been described as unique; similar to crawling, or as if it was climbing in every direction, the Sunda slow loris changes direction or moves between branches with little noise or change in speed.

In captivity, about a quarter of its time is spent moving quadrupedally, a quarter suspended or hanging, a quarter climbing, and a quarter clasping multiple branches (bridging). It may hang below a branch by one or both feet for long periods of time.

The Sunda slow loris is an arboreal and nocturnal primate, resting by day in the forks of trees, or in thick vegetation and feeding on fruit and insects by night, unlike other loris species, it remains in trees most of its life, while the Bengal slow loris will often sleep on the ground, the Sunda slow loris sleeps in a ball in branches or foliage.

It usually sleeps alone but has been observed to sleep with several conspecifics (individuals of the same species), including other adults. Despite its slow metabolism rate, the Sunda slow loris has a high-energy diet. Its slow lifestyle may be due to the energy costs of detoxifying certain secondary plant compounds in many genera of food plants their diets.

All slow loris species produce a toxin in glands on the insides of their elbows. This is spread across their bodies and those of their offspring using the toothcomb while grooming. When threatened with predators, the Sunda slow loris can bite, roll into a ball exposing its toxic saliva-covered fur, or roll up and drop from the trees.

However, the primary method of predator avoidance is crypsis, whereby it hides. The Asiatic reticulated python, the changeable hawk-eagle and the Sumatran orangutan have been recorded as predators of the Sunda slow loris.

One study showed only 8% of the species' active time was spent near other individuals. Where home ranges overlap, spatial groups are formed. These groups consist of one male, one female and up to three younger individuals. The interactions between these individuals are largely friendly; they include allogrooming, following, pant-growling, and click-calling, although social behaviors only make up around 3% of the activity budget.

When it comes into contact with conspecifics from other home ranges there is usually no reaction as home ranges are not defended. In captivity however, it can be aggressive with other individuals. Males have shown antagonistic behaviors such as attacks, pursuits, threats, assertion, fighting, and subordination. The fighting often results in serious injury. Despite this, they are known to be generally sociable in captivity, with allogrooming being the most common social behavior.

There are eight distinct call types made by Sunda slow loris adults, which can be divided into two categories, contact and contact-seeking calls such as whistles and short keckers (a social play and attention-seeking call), and aggressive and defensive calls such as long keckers, screams, snarls and grunts.

Because they rely on crypsis to avoid predators, they do not make alarm calls. Infants emits clicks and squeaks when disturbed. During estrus, females make whistle calls when in visual contact with a male. When exploring new environments and during handling, it makes ultrasonic vocalisations out of the human hearing range.

Olfactory communication is very important in this species. It has roles in alerting others of the identity, physical state and position of the individual. It is also important in reproduction. Like other slow lorises, the Sunda slow loris has glands on its elbows that exude oils. The gland is licked to spread scent and is thought to have evolved for communication, but it is toxic to humans. If the person is allergic to the animal they can go into shock and could even die. 

It also has glands on its anus and can signal conspecifics by perineal rubbing which deposits urine. When it locates the scent of another slow loris it may rub its face on the substrate where the scent was found. The Sunda slow loris may grin or bare its teeth. When stressed, infants may grin, while adults bear their teeth to show aggression or fear, but also during play.

Reproduction is one of the few times the Sunda slow loris aggregates with conspecifics, as it is largely solitary. One study recorded that the most slow lorises ever seen together was six, this appeared to be a female in estrus and five males following her. This may suggest a more promiscuous mating system, where females mate with more than one male. Despite this, its testis size is small compared with similar sized promsimians, which is indicative of monogamy. 

In the wild the mating system of the Sunda slow loris is thought to vary between populations. Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 18 and 24 months in females, and can be reached by 17 months in males. It is polyestrous, having many periods of sexual receptivity during a year.

In captivity however, there is a clear birth peak between March and May. It has been observed that reproductive patterns of captive prosimians in the northern hemisphere are altered. The estrus cycle lasts 29–45 days, with most copulations occurring on the same day.

Females in estrus are followed by males, with copulation initiated by the female. The female will hang from a branch and may vocalise. The male will hold the female and the branch and copulate with her. Urine-marking and vocalising are also used by the female to solicit mating. The male may create a mating plug following copulation.

The gestation period averages 192.2 days, after which one young is born, although twinning has been observed. Both males and females will disperse in the wild, this occurs between 16 and 27 months.

The Sunda slow loris is found in continuous canopy tropical rainforests. It is adaptable and will also live in other types of habitat. It is found in Indonesia, on the islands of Sumatra, Batam and Galang in the Riau Archipelago, and Tebing Tinggi Island and Great Natuna (Bunguran) in the Natuna Islands; in Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula and Pulau Tioman; in the southern peninsular of Thailand; and Singapore.

The Sunda slow loris is sympatric shares its range with the Bengal slow loris in Thailand and hybridisation has occurred.

Sunda Slow Loris is listed as Endangered, due to past and continuing loss of habitat and past and

continued severe pressures from hunting for pet trade, the species is under severe threat from

hybridization with other invasive loris species that are being introduced into its native range.

Populations in Sumatra are under severe pressure from pet trade. Populations in Sumatra, Java, Singapore, Thailand are severely impacted by the release of other loris species, whose medium and long term impacts is suspected to be highly detrimental to the species.

Although the species can survive in plantations and home gardens, the increasing loss of primary habitats throughout the range is suspected to have a major impact on the species, which is suspected to have declined by more than 50% in population over three generations (approximately 24 years), and given the continuing threats to the habitat and populations from hybridization and hunting, it is suspected to continue to decline at the same rate in the next 20 years

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Primates

Suborder : Strepsirrhini

Family : Lorisidae

Genus : Nycticebus

Species : N. coucang

Binomial name : Nycticebus coucang

(Boddaert, 1785)

懒猴（学名 Nycticebus coucang）也叫做蜂猴，是懒猴属的一种。夜间活动，动作缓慢，栖息在树的顶部。

食鸟、昆虫和野果等。

体型比家猫略小，尾极短，隐于毛丛中，不易看见，头圆耳小，眼大而圆，善于夜间看物体。体背和侧面毛呈棕褐色，背中央有一深栗红色纵纹；腹面灰白；四肢粗而短，指、趾具有指甲，仅后肢第二趾具爪，前肢第二指退化，仅剩一短指。

懒猴是目前已知唯一一种有毒的灵长类动物，在受到威胁时腋下会分泌一种呈棕色的油状物，可与唾液混合成有毒的物质（油状物和唾液本身也有毒性）。毒素通过食用有毒的昆虫，如蜈蚣蝎子等获得，所以只有野生的懒猴才可以分泌正常水平的毒性物质，而在保护区内养殖的懒猴因提供的食物一般不含毒素因此不能获取毒素和合成有毒物质。

主要分布于热带、亚热带森林中，共有三个已知亚种：

• 大懒猴 Nycticebus coucang coucang

• 婆罗洲懒猴 Nycticebus coucang menagensis

• 爪哇懒猴 Nycticebus coucang javanicus

lomyIs is a small genus of rodent in the family Sciuridae.

Its two species are :

Javanese flying squirrel (Iomys horsfieldii) and

Mentawi flying squirrel (Iomys sipora)

The Javanese flying squirrel (Iomys horsfieldii) is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.

Horsfield's Flying Squirrel, or Javanese Flying Squirrel (Iomys horsfieldii )​ , is a medium-sized flying squirrel

which occurs in a range of habitats including primary forest and poor secondary forest found in Southeast Asia, primarily feeding on fruits and insects. 

Flying squirrels (scientifically known as Pteromyini or Petauristini) are a tribe of 50 species of squirrels in the family Sciuridae.

Despite their name, they are not in fact capable of full flight in the same way as birds or bats, but they are able to glide from one tree to another with the aid of a patagium, a furred parachute-like skin membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle.

Their long tails also provide stability as they glide. Anatomically they are very similar to other squirrels with a number of adaptations to suit their lifestyle; their limb bones are longer and their hand bones, foot bones, and distal vertebrae are shorter. Flying squirrels are able to steer and exert control over their glide path with their limbs and tail.

Molecular studies have shown that flying squirrels are monophyletic and originated some 18–20 million years ago. The genus Paracitellus is the earliest lineage to the flying squirrel dating back to the late Oligocene era.

Flying squirrels can easily forage for food in the night, given their highly developed sense of smell.

Most are nocturnal and omnivorous, eating fruit, seeds, buds, flowers, insects, gastropods, spiders, fungi, bird's eggs and tree sap. They eat according to their environment and will eat whatever food they can find.

The young are born in a nest and are at first naked and helpless. They are cared for by their mother and by five weeks are able to practice gliding skills so that by ten weeks they are ready to leave the nest.

The direction and speed of the animal in midair are varied by changing the positions of its limbs, largely controlled by small cartilaginous wrist bones.

There is a cartilage projection from the wrist that squirrel holds upwards during a glide.

This specialized cartilage is only present in flying squirrels and not other gliding mammals.

The life expectancy of flying squirrels in the wild is about six years, and flying squirrels can live up to fifteen years in zoos.

The mortality rate in young flying squirrels is high because of predators and diseases. Predators of flying squirrels include tree snakes, raccoons, owls, martens, fishers, coyotes, bobcats, and feral cats.

The mating season for flying squirrels is during February and March. When the infants are born, the female squirrels live with them in maternal nest sites. The mothers nurture and protect them until they leave the nest. The males do not participate in nurturing their offspring.

Many gliders have specialized diets and there is evidence to believe that gliders may be able to take advantage of scattered protein deficient food. Additionally, gliding is a fast form of locomotion and by reducing travel time between patches, they can increase the amount of foraging time.

Iomys horsfieldii are fairly adaptable animals. They are found in a wide variety of habitats. They can live in a variety of forest environments, even those that are degraded.

They also inhabit scrub and are found on durian plantations. They shelter in hollow trees and are limited to southern Asia. Their native range stretches from the peninsula of Malaysia down through Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. There have been additional sightings of individuals in Singapore, Tioman, and Penang.

Javanese flying squirrels are mostly orange-brown to brown-gray, with a tail that is a slightly brighter shade on the ventral surface and sides. Body length averages 182 mm and the tail is as long as, or slightly longer than, the body.

Like other flying squirrels, Javanese flying squirrels have a thin flap of skin, the patagium, connecting the fore and hind limbs to allow for gliding. The patagium is slightly darker in color than the rest of the body. Javanese flying squirrels also have relatively large eyes and ears and long claws for gripping the trees that they live in.

There are three named subspecies of Javanese flying squirrels, though too few specimens have been found to be certain whether these constitute distinct groups.

Iomys horsfieldii davisoni has dark brown-gray fur and a dark brown tail mottled with red-brown at the edges and a short tooth-row.

Iomys horsfieldii penangensis has lighter, brighter coloration and a longer tooth-row.

Iomys horsfieldii thomsoni is very similar to I. h. davisoni, but the tail is uniformly red-brown rather than mottled.

Javanese flying squirrels can be distinguished from their closest relatives by their large size, the orange tinge to the lighter underbelly, and the absence, or near absence of hair on the upper surface of the ear lobe.

​The very similar Petinomys genibarbis can be distinguished from Javanese flying squirrels by the presence of a 5 mm wart on the cheek, sprouting long black whiskers.

Javanese flying squirrels are nocturnal and arboreal. Like other flying squirrels, they are probably able to glide long distances between trees and use their long claws for grip. Almost nothing is known about their social behavior. Members of the related genus Petaurista have been recorded foraging alone or in small groups, so it is possible that Javanese flying squirrels also organize themselves in this manner.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Rodentia

Family : Sciuridae

Subfamily : Sciurinae

Tribe : Pteromyini

Genus : Iomys Thomas, 1908

Species : I. horsfieldii

Binomial name : Iomys horsfieldii

(Waterhouse, 1838

Manidae is the only extant family of pangolins from the superfamily Manoidea. This family comprises three genera: Manis (Asian pangolins), Phataginus (African tree pangolins), and Smutsia (African ground pangolins), along with the extinct Fayum pangolin. All species of living pangolins were previously assigned to the genus Manis until the late 2000s when research led to the identification of these three genera. 

All species of living pangolin had been assigned to the genus Manis until the late 2000s, when research prompted the splitting of extant pangolins into three genera : Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia.

The name Sunda is a reference to the pangolin’s range throughout a biogeographical region called Sundaland that comprises the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian Archipelago islands west of the Wallace Line. Pangolins are specialist myrmecophages.

​Myrmecophagy is a feeding behavior defined by the consumption of termites or ants, particularly as pertaining to those animal species whose diets are largely or exclusively composed of said insect types.

Literally, myrmecophagy means "ant eating" (Ancient Greek: murmēx, "ants" and phagein, "to eat") rather than "termite eating" (for which the strict term is termitophagy). The two habits often overlap, as both of these eusocial insect types often live in large, densely populated nests requiring similar adaptations in the animal species that exploit them.

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), also known as the Malayan or Javan pangolin, is a species of pangolin. It is a member of the Manidae family.[3] Its English name comes from the Malay name pëngulin, which means "roller".

It is native to Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, and the islands of Borneo, Java, Sumatra and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It prefers forested primary, secondary and scrub forest habitats, but also lives in rubber and palm oil plantations. It is largely arboreal.

M. javanica using strong claws on their forelimbs to break into nests and mounds found underground or in trees. Once found, they use their long sticky tongue to gather the insects.

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), also known as the Malayan or Javan pangolin, is a species of pangolin found throughout Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, and the islands of Borneo, Java, Sumatra and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It prefers forested habitats (primary, secondary, and scrub forest) and plantations (rubber, palm oil). A large part of its life is spent in trees.

In the past, this species has included the closely related Palawan pangolin (M. culionensis), as both are in the subgenus Paramanis. It is closely related to the Chinese pangolin, although the Malayan species is larger, lighter in colour, and has shorter fore claws.

The skin of the Sunda pangolin's feet is granular, although pads are found on its front feet. It has thick and powerful claws to dig into the soils in search of ant nests or to tear into termite mounds.

The Sunda pangolin has poor eyesight, but a highly developed sense of smell. Lacking teeth, its long, sticky tongue serves to collect ants and termites. Its body is covered by rows of scales and fibrous hair.

The head-body length of this pangolin can measure 40–65 cm, tail length is 35–56 cm, and its weight is up to 10 kg. Males are larger than females.

Pangolins are solitary mammals and are not dangerous or aggressive. Looks can be deceiving as these hard-scaled ‘ant-eaters’ are actually quite placid and go about their business without much fuss and usually in complete silence.

Pangolins are also one of the few animals that have no vocal cords, so the only sounds they produce are from huffing and puffing their way through a tasty meal.

Pangolins make very few sounds. When they walk or climb, their scales can be heard rubbing against one another and against the vegetation. When awakening or feeding, they snort and chuff audibly. Males also rarely make a soft hooting noise.

Pangolins give birth annually to one or two offspring. They breed in the autumn, and females give birth in the winter burrow. Den preference has been known to shift at this time to favor mature forest tree hollows. Presumably, these hollows offer more fortification and stability for the decreased mobility that comes with birthing and caring for young.

The amount of time the mother will spend at any one of these dens will increase during parental care periods. Parental care is given for about three months. In these three months, the range of the mother Pangolin drastically decreases as she travels and forages with her offspring. Only a few weeks before the offspring becomes fully independent, the mother and her young can display brief spikes in diurnal activity.

Pangolins are sometimes found in pairs, but normally they are solitary, nocturnal, and behave timidly. They protect their soft underparts by rolling into balls when they feel threatened. They are strong diggers and make burrows lined with vegetation for insulation near termite mounds and ant nests.

Sunda pangolins have low immunity, making them sensitive to fluctuations in temperature.

The Sunda pangolin's main predators are humans, tigers, and the clouded leopard.

Pangolins as a family are among the most heavily poached and exploited protected animals. Like other pangolin species, the Sunda pangolin is hunted for its skin, scales, and meat, used in clothing manufacture and traditional medicine.

Scales are made into rings as charms against rheumatic fever, and meat is eaten by indigenous peoples. Despite enjoying protected status almost everywhere in its range, illegal international trade, largely driven by Chinese buyers, has led to rapidly decreasing population numbers. The Sunda pangolin is currently considered to be critically endangered.

As of 2016, all pangolin species are listed on CITES Appendix I, which prohibits commercial international trade of wild-caught specimens or their body parts. China raised the protection status of all pangolin species to the highest level in 2020.

A metagenomic study published in 2019 previously revealed that SARS-CoV, the strain of the virus that causes SARS, was the most widely distributed coronavirus among a sample of Sunda pangolins.

On 7 February 2020, it was announced that researchers from Guangzhou had discovered a pangolin sample with a viral nucleic acid sequence "99% identical" to SARS-CoV-2. When released, the results clarified that "the receptor-binding domain of the S protein of the newly discovered Pangolin-CoV is virtually identical to that of 2019-nCoV, with one amino acid difference." Pangolins are protected under Chinese law, but their poaching and trading for use in traditional Chinese medicine remains common.

Pangolin coronaviruses found to date only share at most 92% of their whole genomes with SARS-CoV-2, making them less similar than RaTG13 to SARS-CoV-2. This is insufficient to prove pangolins to be the intermediate host; in comparison, the SARS virus responsible for the 2002–2004 outbreak shared 99.8% of its genome with a known civet coronavirus.

​

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Pholidota

Family : Manidae

Genus : Manis

Subgenus : Paramanis

Species : M. javanica

Binomial name : Manis javanica

Desmarest, 1822

The Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), also called common palm civet, toddy cat and musang, is a viverrid native to South and Southeast Asia.

Since 2008, it is IUCN Red Listed as Least Concern as it accommodates to a broad range of habitats. It is widely distributed with large populations that in 2008 were thought unlikely to be declining.

In Indonesia, it is threatened by poaching and illegal wildlife trade; buyers use it for the increasing production of kopi luwak. 

The Asian palm civet's long, stocky body is covered with coarse, shaggy hair that is usually greyish in colour. It has a white mask across the forehead, a small white patch under each eye, a white spot on each side of the nostrils, and a narrow dark line between the eyes. 

The muzzle, ears, lower legs, and distal half of the tail are black, with three rows of black markings on the body. Its head-to-body length is about 53 cm (21 in) with a 48 cm (19 in) long unringed tail. It weighs 2 to 5 kg (4 to 11 lb). Its anal scent glands emit a nauseating secretion as a chemical defense when threatened or upset.

Asian palm civet is native to India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, Laos, Cambodia, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java, Bawean, Kalimantan and Siberut. It was introduced to Irian Jaya, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku, and Sulawesi.

It usually inhabits primary forests, but also occurs at lower densities in secondary and selectively logged forest. It is also present in parks and suburban gardens with mature fruit trees, fig trees, and undisturbed vegetation. Its sharp claws allow climbing of trees and house gutters.

In most parts of Sri Lanka, palm civets are considered a nuisance since they litter in ceilings and attics of common households, and make loud noises fighting and moving about at night.

The Asian palm civet is thought to lead a solitary lifestyle, except for brief periods during mating. It is both terrestrial and arboreal, showing a nocturnal activity pattern with peaks between late evening until after midnight. 

Scent marking behaviour and olfactory response to various excretions such as urine, feces, and secretion of the perineal gland differs in males and females. Scent marking by dragging the perineal gland and leaving the secretion on the substrate was most commonly observed in animals of both sexes.

The duration of the olfactory response varied and depended both on the sex and excretion type. The palm civet can distinguish animal species, sex, familiar and unfamiliar individuals by the odor of the perineal gland secretion.

The Asian palm civet is an omnivore feeding foremost on fruits such as berries and pulpy fruits. It thus helps to maintain tropical forest ecosystems via seed dispersal. It's fruit diet consist of chiku, mango, rambutan, and coffee, but also small mammals and insects. It plays an important role in the natural regeneration of Pinanga kuhlii and P. zavana palms at Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. It also feeds on palm flower sap, which when fermented becomes palm wine, a sweet liquor ("toddy"). Because of this habit, it is called the toddy cat.

Due to its solitary and nocturnal habits, little is known about its reproductive processes and behaviour.

In some parts of its range Asian palm civets are hunted for bushmeat and the pet trade. In southern China it is extensively hunted and trapped. Dead individuals were found with local tribes where it is killed for its meat, in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, and Agra, Uttar Pradesh, between 1998 and 2003 in India.

The oil extracted from small pieces of the meat kept in linseed oil in a closed earthen pot and regularly sunned, is used indigenously as a cure for scabies. Scabies is an infestation of the skin by the human itch mite (Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis). The microscopic scabies mite burrows into the upper layer of the skin where it lives and lays its eggs. The most common symptoms of scabies are intense itching and a pimple-like skin rash. 

Kopi luwak is coffee prepared using coffee beans that have been subjected to ingestion and fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract of the Asian palm civet, which is called luwak in Indonesia. Caffeine content in both Arabica and Robusta luwak coffee is lower than in unfermented coffee. 

Large deformation mechanical rheology testing revealed that civet coffee beans are harder and more brittle in nature than their control counterparts indicating that digestive juices enter into the beans and modify the micro-structural properties of these beans. Proteolytic enzymes cause substantial breakdown of storage proteins.

Kopi luwak is traditionally made from the faeces of wild civets, however, due to it becoming a trendy drink, civets are being increasingly captured from the wild and fed coffee beans to mass-produce this blend. Many of these civets are housed in battery cage systems which have been criticised on animal welfare grounds. The impact of the demand for this fashionable coffee on wild palm civet populations is yet unknown but may constitute a significant threat. In Indonesia, the demand for Asian palm civets appears to be in violation of the quota set for pets.

The Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) is listed on CITES Appendix III. There is a quota in place in Indonesia, precluding trade from certain areas, setting a cap on the number of civets that can be taken from the wild, and allowing only 10% of those removed from the wild to be sold domestically. This quota is largely ignored by hunters and traders and is not enforced by authorities.

This species has become popular as a pet in Indonesia in recent years, causing a rise in the numbers found in markets in Java and Bali. The majority of the animals sold as pets originate from the wild. The high numbers of animals seen, lack of adherence to the quota and lack of enforcement of the laws are causes for conservation concern.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Carnivora

Suborder : Feliformia

Family : Viverridae

Genus : Paradoxurus

Species:  P. hermaphroditus

Binomial name : Paradoxurus hermaphroditus

(Pallas, 1777)

Rusa is a genus of deer from southern Asia. They have traditionally been included in Cervus, and genetic evidence suggests this may be more appropriate than their present placement in a separate genus. Three of the four species have relatively small distributions in the Philippines and Indonesia, but the sambar is more widespread, ranging from India east and north to China and south to the Greater Sundas. All are threatened by habitat loss and hunting in their native ranges, but three of the species have also been introduced elsewhere.

The genus name derives from Malay rusa meaning "deer." The sambar (Rusa unicolor) is a large deer native to the indian subcontinent, South China and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List since 2008, as populations have declined substantially due to hunting, local insurgency, and industrial exploitation of habitat.

The appearance and the size of the sambar vary widely across its range. In general, they attain a height of 102 to 160 cm (40 to 63 in) at the shoulder and may weigh as much as 546 kg (1,204 lb), though more typically 100 to 350 kg (220 to 770 lb). Head and body length varies from 1.62 to 2.7 m (5.3 to 8.9 ft), with a 22 to 35 cm (8.7 to 13.8 in) tail.

The large, rugged antlers are typically rusine, the brow tines being simple and the beams forked at the tip, so they have only three tines. The antlers are typically up to 110 cm (43 in) long in fully adult individuals. As with most deer, only the males have antlers. The shaggy coat can be from yellowish brown to dark grey in colour, and while it is usually uniform in colour, some subspecies have chestnut marks on the rump and underparts. Sambar also have a small but dense mane, which tends to be more prominent in males. The tail is relatively long for deer and is generally black above with a whitish underside.

Adult males and pregnant or lactating females possess an unusual hairless, blood-red spot located about halfway down the underside of their throats. This sometimes oozes a white liquid, and is apparently glandular in nature.

Sambar are nocturnal or crepuscular. The males live alone for much of the year, and the females live in small herds of up to 16 individuals. Indeed, in some areas, the average herd consists of only three or four individuals, typically consisting of an adult female. This is an unusual pattern for deer, which more commonly live in larger groups. They often congregate near water and are good swimmers.

Sambar feed on a wide variety of vegetation, including grasses, foliage, browse, fruit, and water plants, depending on the local habitat. They also consume a great variety of shrubs and trees. Sambar have been seen congregating in large herds in protected areas such as national parks and nature reserves

The sambar is distributed from the south-facing slopes of the Himalayas in Nepal, Bhutan and India to Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indochina, southern China and in Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Infraclass : Placentalia

Order : Artiodactyla

Family : Cervidae

Genus : Rusa

Species : R. unicolor

Binomial name : Rusa unicolor

(Kerr, 1792)

The lesser mouse-deer, lesser Malay chevrotain, or kanchil (Tragulus kanchil) is a species of even-toed ungulate in the family Tragulidae.

The lesser mouse-deer is found widely across Southeast Asia in Indochina, Burma (Kra Isthmus), Brunei, Cambodia, China (Southern Yunnan), Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra and many other small islands), Laos, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and many other small islands), Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Tragulus Kanchil is the smallest known hoofed mammal, its mature size being as little as 45 cm (18 inches) and 2 kg (4.4 lb). It is threatened by predation by feral dogs.

The Malay or Indonesian name kancil, (pronounced 'kanchil' or 'kahn-cheel', as in the species' name) means both mouse-deer and 'clever person'. The generic name Tragulus, is composed of Tragos, 'goat' in Greek, and –ulus, meaning 'tiny' in Latin.

In an Indonesian and Malaysian folklore, the mouse-deer Sang Kancil is a cunning trickster similar to Br'er Rabbit from the Uncle Remus tales, even sharing some story plots, like when they both trick enemies pretending to be dead or inanimate, or lose a race to slower opponents.

Although the mousedeer in Southeast Asia resemble deer, they are distinguishable from the latter by their small size, thin legs, and a triangular white pattern extending from the chin and running down the throat.

Their coat ranges in colour from grey to reddish-brown. Males have a pair of enlarged canines that extend down from their upper jaw.

The head-to-body length of an adult greater mousedeer is about 50 to 60 cm, while that of an adult lesser mousedeer is around 40 to 50 cm.

The distinguishing feature between the two species lies in the white stripes on either side of the triangular pattern running down their chin and throat. The white stripes are continuous in the lesser mousedeer, but appear broken and/or uneven in the greater mousedeer.

The greater mousedeer has a gestation period of five to six months, and the young will reach full adult size at around five months old. The lesser mousedeer usually gives birth to one fawn, which is weaned at about three months old.

Mousedeer are frugivorous. They feed on low vegetation as well as fallen fruits, shoots, young leaves and fungi foraged from the ground. The mousedeer inhabit both primary and mature secondary rainforests. Other than Singapore, both species can be found in Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. The lesser mousedeer is also found in southern China.

In Singapore, the lesser mousedeer has always been a known inhabitant of the Central Catchment Area. The greater mousedeer, on the other hand, was thought to have vanished from Singapore.

The mousedeer is traditionally hunted for its meat, which is said to be more tender than venison. The meat is also made into dendeng (spiced, dried meat).

On 27 June 1947, the Wild Animals and Birds Protection Order, 1947, was gazetted, which put an end to the hunting of mousedeer and several other wildlife species in Singapore.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order:  Artiodactyla

Family : Tragulidae

Genus : Tragulus

Species : T. kanchil

Binomial name : Tragulus kanchil

Raffles, 1821

 The banded pig (Sus scrofa vittatus) also known as the Indonesian wild boar is a subspecies of wild boarnative to the Thai-Malay Peninsula and

many Indonesian islands, including Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sundas as far east as Komodo.

In Singapore it is known as the wild boar and is the most basal subspecies, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition, and unspecialised cranial structure.

It is a short-faced subspecies with a white band on the muzzle, as well as sparse body hair, no underwool, a fairly long mane, and a broad reddish band extending from the muzzle to the sides of the neck. It is much smaller than the mainland S. s. cristatus subspecies, with the largest specimens on Komodo weighing only 48 kg.

In some areas, it differs from most other boar populations by being highly frugivorous, with specimens in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java eating around 50 different fruit species, especially figs, thus making them important seed dispersers.

On the islands of Komodo and Rinca, its diet is more varied, encompassing roots, tubers, grasses, insects, fruits, snakes, and carrion. It also frequently eats crabs during low tide. Piglets are born from December to March in litters of two to six, and are raised in grass nests constructed by their mother. They are much less vividly striped than the young of S. s. scrofa. The banded pig is a primary food source for Komodo dragons on the islands of Komodo, Rinca, and Flores,

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Artiodactyla

Family : Suidae

Genus : Sus

Species : S. scrofa

Subspecies : S. s. vittatus

Trinomial name : Sus scrofa vittatus Boie, 1828

Cynopterus (Latin meaning: ״flying dog״) is a genus of megabats.

The lesser short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) is a species of megabat within the family Pteropodidae. It is a small bat that lives in South and Southeast Asia and Indonesia (Borneo). It weighs between 21 and 32 grams (0.74 and 1.13 oz), and/or 70 to 127 mm.

It occurs in many types of habitat, but most frequently in disturbed forest, including lower montane forest and tropical lowland rain forest, plus gardens, mangroves, and vegetation on beaches. Lesser short-nosed fruit bats are generally brown to yellowish brown with a brighter collar. Adult males have dark orange collars whereas adult females have yellowish collars.

An indistinct collar is observed in some immature bats. The edges of the ears and the wing bones are usually white. Individuals have two pairs of lower incisors, a fox-like face and large dark eyes. The head and body length is 7–8 cm (2.8–3.1 in), the forearm length is 6–7 cm (2.4–2.8 in), tail length is 0.8–1.0 cm (0.31–0.39 in) and ear length is 1.4–1.6 cm (0.55–0.63 in). There are nine subspecies of lesser short-nosed fruit bat.

The lifespan of the lesser short-nosed fruit bat is approximately 20 to 30 years. The greater short-nosed fruit bat is similar to the lesser short-nosed fruit bat but has generally longer forearms, longer ears and a much longer skull.

Lesser short-nosed fruit bats are frugivorous. They forage with their acute sense of smell and navigate with their keen vision. They prefer aromatic fruit, especially mangoes. The bats feed mainly on small fruits by sucking out the juices and soft pulp. They also eat nectar and pollen.

The mating system of lesser short-nosed fruit bats is polygynous, most populations give birth twice a year and pregnant females have been found in almost all months. The period of gestation is approximately 3.5 to 4 months. 

Both sexes take care of the young. Males play an active role in lactation and feeding the young. They have mammary glands that are the same size as those of the female and exceed 8% of their overall body mass.

The mother nurses the young with milk for about six to eight weeks. It takes about a year for the male to become sexually mature, and most females become pregnant at approximately six to eight months of age.

Lesser short-nosed fruit bats prefer to roost in small groups in trees, under leaves, and in caves. Young males may roost alone. It is common for one male to roost with up to four females. Females may gather in groups of up to 20.

Lesser short-nosed fruit bats are free of terrestrial predation because of their ability to fly. Some human cultures consume them as a delicacy. They play important roles in plant pollination. Plants such as bananas, avocados, dates, mangoes and peaches depend on them for seed dispersal. The bats are considered to be crop pests since they consume and damage fruit.

They are widely distributed in Sri Lanka, southwest and northeast India, Bangladesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, southern China, southern Burma, Indochina, Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sulawesi, the Philippines, Singapore and also on the Lesser Sunda Islands.

Lesser short-nosed fruit bats are designated a least-concern species by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) because the population is widely distributed, stable and still abundant. Possible threats may be habitat loss due to development, dams, and deforestation. The animals are being hunted for medical purposes, as reported in ICZN 2006.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Infraclass: Placentalia

Order : Chiroptera

Family : Pteropodidae

Genus : Cynopterus

Species : C. brachyotis

Binomial name : Cynopterus brachyotis

(Müller, 1838)

Sundasciurus is a genus of rodent in the family Sciuridae. 

The slender squirrel (Sundasciurus tenuis) is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is arboreal and found in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand. 

The body is brown on the upper parts and light grey on the underparts. The body measures about 13–16 cm, with a slightly shorter slender tail. It feeds on soft bark, fruits and insects playing a role in forest ecology as both a seed consumer and potential seed disperser.

Sundasciurus tenuis is diurnal and arboreal, moving nimbly through trees using sharp claws and a balancing tail. Slender Squirrels construct nests from short branches and stems, often in tree crooks about one meter above the ground. Social behavior is flexible; while generally solitary, they may form small groups of up to ten individuals in areas with abundant food.

Sundasciurus tenuis is a small, agile tree squirrel with a flexible social structure, omnivorous diet, and adaptability to various forested habitats. Its presence in both primary and secondary forests, as well as urban green spaces, highlights its ecological resilience and importance in Southeast Asian forest ecosystems.

Sundasciurus tenuis inhabits forests, secondary woodlands, and parklands, primarily in the lowlands and hills up to 1650 m elevation. It is found across Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand, with populations in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. 

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Infraclass : Placentalia

Order : Rodentia

Family : Sciuridae

Genus : Sundasciurus

Species : S. tenuis

Binomial name : Sundasciurus tenuis

(Horsfield, 1824)

The genus name Callosciurus means beautiful squirrels. Callosciurus notatus, the plantain squirrel, oriental squirrel or tri coloured squirrel is a species of rodents in the family Sciuridae found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand .

Plantain squirrel cover a wide range of habitats from forests, mangroves, parks, gardens, and agricultural areas. Fruit farmers consider them to be pests. 

Plantain squirrels breed year round. Its diet consists mostly of leaves and fruits, but it also eats insects and bird eggs, it is known to break open twigs that contain ant larvae to eat them and it can eat fruits much bigger than itself, such as mangoes, jackfruit, or coconuts.

Its body is about 20–30 cm  (8–12 in) long with a similar-sized tail. Its weight can vary from 160 to 259 g (5.6 to 9.1 oz). It is greyish/brown with a chestnut belly and a black and white stripe on the side. 

Callosciurus notatus, the plantain squirrel is very quick and agile in trees, it is able to jump a few metres between trees and sometimes do wanders on the ground. Like all rodents, it has two large upper and lower incisors.

The plantain squirrel is diurnal. It is either solitary or social in small groups, wherein squirrels communicate with shrill chirps and chattering while showing off their tails. These high calls may be alarms responding to the presence of a predator. 

Different types of predators prompt different calls and elicit different responses in the squirrel. A snake alarm causes nearby squirrels to move towards the threat and mob it, while a raptor alarm causes the squirrels to freeze and take cover.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Infraclass : Placentalia

Order : Rodentia

Family : Sciuridae

Genus : Callosciurus

Species : C. notatus

Binomial name : Callosciurus notatus

(Boddaert, 1785

The Sunda flying lemur (Galeopterus variegatus), also called Malayan flying lemur and Malayan colugo, is the sole colugo species of the genus Galeopterus.

Galeopterus variegatus is native to Southeast Asia from southern Myanmar, Thailand, southern Vietnam, Malaysia to Singapore and Indonesia and it is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

Although it is called "flying lemur", it cannot fly but glides among trees and is strictly arboreal. It is active at night, and feeds on soft plant parts such as young leaves, shoots, flowers, and fruits. It is a forest-dependent species.

The Sunda flying lemur is protected by national legislation. The Sunda flying lemurs are often hunted by local people with spears or other lethal equipment for various reasons such as food and fur. Habitat loss is known to occur intermittently, particularly in developing countries.

The Sunda flying lemurs' two forms are not morphologically distinct from one another; the large form occurs on the mainland of the Sunda Shelf area and the mainland of Southeast Asia, while the dwarf form occurs in central Laos and some other adjacent islands.[5] The Laos specimen is smaller (about 20%) than the other known mainland population.

The Sunda flying lemur is a skillful climber, but is nearly helpless when on the ground. Its gliding membrane connects from the neck, extending along the limbs to the tips of the fingers, toes, and nails.

This kite-shaped skin is known as a patagium, which is expanded for gliding. It can glide over a distance of 100 m with a loss of fewer than 10 m in elevation. It has a dorsiflexed and abducted foot while having an abducted clawed grasp. This technique helps to climb trees easier and faster while looking for food or staying away from predators.

The Sunda flying lemur is widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia, ranging from the Sunda Shelf mainland to other islands – northern Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak), Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Bali, Java) and many adjacent islands.

The Sunda flying lemur is adapted to many different vegetation types, including gardens, primary and secondary forest, rubber and coconut plantations, fruit orchards (dusun), mangrove swamps, lowlands and upland forests, tree plantations, lowland dipterocarp forests, and mountainous areas, but not all of these habitats can sustain large colugo populations.

The Sunda flying lemur is nocturnal, but is sometimes active in the morning and in the afternoon. It can maneuver and navigate while gliding, but strong rain and wind can affect its ability to glide. Gliding usually occurs in open areas or high in the canopy, especially in dense tropical rainforest.

The Sunda flying lemur (Galeopterus variegatus) needs a certain distance to glide and to land to avoid injury. The highest landing forces are experienced after short glides; longer glides lead to softer landings, due to its ability to brake its glide aerodynamically. The ability to glide increases a colugo's access to scattered food resources in the rainforest, without increasing exposure to terrestrial or arboreal predators.

In general, the Sunda flying lemur diet consists mainly of leaves; it usually consumes leaves with less potassium and nitrogen-containing compounds, but with higher tannin.

It also feeds on buds, shoots, flowers of coconut and durian trees fruits and sap from selected tree species. It also feeds on insects in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo.

The selected food sources depend on the localities, habitat, vegetation types, and availability. It has been observed to lick tree bark of selected tree species to obtain water, nutrients, salts, and minerals.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Infraclass : Placentalia

Order : Dermoptera

Family : Cynocephalidae

Genus : Galeopterus

Thomas, 1908

Species : G. variegatus

Binomial name : Galeopterus variegatus

(Audebert, 1799)

The common treeshrew (Tupaia glis) is a small mammal in the treeshrew family Tupaiidae, and is native to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. It has been listed as Least Concern by IUCN as it remains common and displays some adaptability to ongoing habitat loss.

The common treeshrew is one of the largest among treeshrews. Average body length is between 16 and 21 cm (6.3 and 8.3 in), and average weight is around 190 g, with varying colours of reddish-brown, greyish or black upper parts and whitish belly.

Its long, bushy tail is dark greyish-brown and almost reaches the length of the body. The paws are bare with sharp nails, and with a naked patch of skin above its long nose. Both sexes are similar. The animal has a head and body length of 13–21 cm and a tail length of 12–20 cm. The common treeshrew usually has a white, pale stripe on each shoulder.

Common treeshrews occur south of about 10°N latitude in southern Thailand through mainland Malaysia and adjacent coastal islands to Singapore. They inhabit protected areas, including the Pasoh Forest Reserve on the Malay Peninsula and Krau Wildlife Reserve. In Indonesia, they are found on the islands of Siberut, Batu, Sumatra, Java, Bangka, Riau, Lingga and Anambas.

The common treeshrew (Tupaia glis) is usually found in primary dipterocarp forest, but are tolerant to some degree of habitat modification. They have also been recorded from secondary forest, plantations, fruit orchards, and trees near housing areas.

Common treeshrews are active during the day, and forage for food alone or in pairs, mainly on the ground, among shrubs and tree holes. They feed on fruits, seeds, leaves, and insects, especially ants and spiders and they are also reported to catch lizards.

The common treeshrew are very agile in climbing both large vertical tree trunks and bushes, and occasionally jump from stems of a young tree to that of another as much as 60 cm (24 in) away. Their climbing is concentrated in lower heights. They frequently scent-mark their territories by chest and anogenital rubbing with a secretion from glands on chest and scrotum. Adult males are more secretory than females and juveniles. 

Both sexes of common treeshrews are sexually mature at the age of about three months. In captivity, females give birth for the first time at the age of about 4.5 mo, usually in February.  A postpartum oestrus results in more births in April. Their oestrus cycle is eight to 39 days, and the gestation period lasts 40 to 52 days, after which a litter of one to three individuals is born.

The newborn offspring weigh about 10 to 12 grams. Females suckle their young every other day, and neglect their young as long as possible. They would not even be able to identify their own young if they did not mark them with the scent produced from glands in their sternum and abdomen. Juveniles leave the nest between 25 and 35 days of age. Longevity of a captive common treeshrew has been recorded as 12 yr and 5 mo.

Common treeshrews are threatened due to deforestation and ensuing human activities in agriculture (for example, using trenchers to dig ditches), plantations, and commercial logging. Moreover, other pressures, such as hunting for food and sport, can create pressure to the species.

As a model organism, Tupaia glis is used by researchers as animal models for human diseases because of their close relationship to primates, and their well-developed senses of vision and hearing. Research studies have included hepatitis. Another instance has been documented where an individual of Tupaia glis developed breast cancer.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Infraclass : Placentalia

Order : Scandentia

Family : Tupaiidae

Genus : Tupaia

Species : T. glis

Binomial name : Tupaia glis

(Diard, 1820)