Calamaria schlegeli is a species of non venomous snake in the family Colubridae commonly known as the red-headed reed snake, white-headed reed snake and pink-headed reed snake.

A rare Albino species of (Calamaria schlegeli) Pink-headed Reed Snake. This species is native to Southeast Asia, where it occurs in the Malay Peninsula (Malaysia, Singapore), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia), and in several Indonesian islands, including Sumatra, Java, Bali.

Albinism is the congenital absence of melanin in an animal or plant resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and red, pink, purple or blue eyes. Individuals with the condition are referred to as albinos.

Albino plants are plants that lack chlorophyll, the green pigment needed for ​photosynthesis, leading to white foliage and a short lifespan. Animals can appear coloured due to two mechanisms, pigments and structural colours. Animals produce colour in both direct and indirect ways.

Direct production occurs through the presence of visible coloured cells known as pigment which are particles of coloured material such as freckles.

Indirect production occurs by virtue of cells known as chromatophores which are pigment-containing cells such as hair follicles. The distribution of the pigment particles in the chromatophores can change under hormonal or neuronal control.

Snake coloration varies widely due to pigment cells like melanophores (black/brown) and xanthophores (yellow/red), along with structural colors like iridophores that create blues and greens. These colors and patterns such as uniform, striped, or banded are linked to camouflage, defense (aposematism), and behavior, with some species even changing color as they mature.

Color production and patterns :

Pigments : Chromatophores produce pigments, including melanophores (black/brown) and xanthophores (yellow/red).

Structural color : Iridophores are cells that produce structural or iridescent colors.

Greens and blues are often a combination of pigment and structural effects.

Pattern diversity : Coloration can be simple (uniform) or complex, including reticulations (net-like patterns), longitudinal stripes, and crossbanding.

Patterns help snakes blend into their surroundings. Snakes with blotched patterns can help them blend with rocks and sticks, while plain or striped patterns are common in snakes that need to be less conspicuous.

Albino animals can have blue or violet eyes in some cases, although red or pink is most common because it allows the blood vessels in the eye to be visible.

The specific eye color can depend on the animal and whether the lack of pigment is complete or affects other color-producing processes, and lighting can sometimes make blue eyes appear purple.

Blue is not a pigment color, it is a structural color that happens when light scatters off the iris. This can be seen in some albino animals, where the lack of melanin allows this structural coloration to be visible. 

The appearance of purple or other colors can be influenced by lighting conditions, which may cause blue eyes to look like a darker or more violet color. The final eye color of an albino animal can vary by species.

Albinism can occur in many snake species, both in the wild and in captivity. In captivity, albino snakes are more common because breeders can selectively pair snakes that carry the albinism gene to produce offspring with this trait. 

Albino snakes lack the dark pigments that usually give snakes their earthy tones, such as browns, blacks and greens. Instead, they have pale or white skin with pink, yellow or orange hues, depending on the species.

Their eyes are another key difference, without melanin, their eyes appear pink or red due to the underlying blood vessels. An albino snake stand out in its natural habitat would have made it too easy as a prey object. 

Albinism are the result of a genetic mutation that inhibits the production of melanin, the pigment responsible for the typical coloration in animals.

This mutation is recessive. This genetic condition can occur naturally in the wild, though it is rare, due to the disadvantages it can present in terms of survival. This lack of melanin results in the distinctively pale or white skin and pink or red eyes that are the hallmarks of albinism.

Albino snakes, while beautiful, face several health concerns. One of the most significant issues is their sensitivity to sunlight. Without melanin, albino snakes are more prone to sunburn under the sun for long period of time and can suffer from vision problems due to their sensitive eyes. This sensitivity means they must remain in environments with carefully controlled lighting to avoid damaging their skin and eyes within captivity.

Snakes are ectothermic, meaning they rely on external sources like the sun to regulate their body temperature. Because of this, their internal temperature changes with the surrounding environment as it cannot generate their own body heat.

Snake though are cold blooded animals, when temperatures drop too low it become sluggish and seek shelter to enter a state called brumation, a form of dormancy similar to hibernation.

Wild albino snakes, though lack of melanin will still need heat to warm up its body and may bask in short bursts in areas with dappled sunlight rather than direct, full sun.

Unlike those that are kept in captivity may remainin enviroments with careful lighting to avoid damaging their skin and eyes.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata 

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Calamaria

Species : C. schlegeli

Binomial name : Calamaria schlegeli

T7 : 14-09-25

This specie capture in shot is 53cm in length, Xenochrophis is a genus of asian colubrid snakes in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. The genus is endemic to Asia. Some members have been moved to the genus Fowlea. These snakes species are known for their keeled (ridged) scales.

Some species, such as the Striped Keelback (X.vittatus), are recognized by their distinct longitudinal stripes, while others, like the Checkered Keelback (Xenochrophis piscator), display a checkered pattern.

Xenochrophis maculatus, common name Spotted Keelback (In Thai: งูลายสอหลังจุด, ngu lhai sor lhang joot) is a species of rear-fanged snake, but its venom properties and potential danger are unknown, it is a semi-aquatic snake found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, and Borneo.

The Spotted Keelback possesses venom to its prey, though its exact properties and potential danger to humans are not fully understood.

Xenochrophis maculatus had a slender body, a dark grey to blackish head and pale yellow to white lips and throat. The underside is pale yellow or white, eye is large, and the dorsal scales strongly keeled.

It aslo had a dark, forward-pointed barring on the flanks, black mottling on the back of the neck, and reddish-orange and buff coloration on the body, belly is white to yellowish. It can reach to lengths of around 100 cm.

Xenochrophis maculatus inhabit lowland forests, within freshwater habitats, including shallow streams and mangrove swampy areas. This species is diurnal active during the day, though at times it may also be out at nite, it feed primarily on frog, in general it may also feed on other soft-bodied animals like small fishes and toads which are closely related to frogs.

Apparently Spotted Keelback is not known to be venomous to humans, though it is not know to be aggressive, a bite from it will generally cause minor local pain, redness and swelling.

All keelbacks should be treated with caution since the degree of toxicity of the venom of many species to humen is unknown.

In general keelbacks are not aggressive, several sources confirm Xenochrophis maculatus (Spotted Keelback) is non-venomous to humans, though some sources note it should be treated with caution as it is a member of the rear-fanged keelback family and is should be treated with caution since the degree of toxicity of the venom of many species is unknown as there isn't a specific in-depth scientific study referenced.

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Xenochrophis

Species : X. maculatus

Binomial name : Xenochrophis maculatus

(Edeling, 1864)

T7 : 08-09-25

This species shot here had a length of 27cm in full.

Gongylosoma is a genus of snakes of the superfamily Colubroidea. The Gongylosoma genus includes at least five recognized species of smooth snakes from the family Colubridae.

Such as :

Gongylosoma baliodeirus (Boie's Smooth Snake or Orange-bellied Ringneck).

Gongylosoma longicauda (Peters's Smooth Snake)

Gongylosoma mukutense (Mukut Smooth Snake)

Gongylosoma nicobariensis

(Camorta Island stripe-necked snake)

Gongylosoma scriptum (Common Ringneck or Indochinese Ground Snake).

Other species, like Gongylosoma pallidonuchalis, have also been described, with the exact taxonomy and relationships still being researched. The Gongylosoma snake genus is found in various locations across Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent, including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar, India, and Nepal, with specific species found on islands such as Sumatra, Java, the Nicobar Islands, and Pulau Tioman.

Examples of species within this genus include the Indochinese ground snake (G. scriptum) and the long-tailed ringneck (G. longicauda). Species within the Gongylosoma genus are generally known for being secretive forest floor dwellers, a ground-dwelling snakes.

Often called ground snakes or ringnecks, they are known to inhabit terrestrial environments in South and Southeast Asia, where they live on the ground often hiding beneath leaf litter rather than in trees or water. Gongylosoma species are typically insectivores, but they are also an opportunistic predators that may consume small amphibian or whatever is available and small enough to be swallowed.

The "Orange-bellied Ringneck" (Gongylosoma baliodeirum) In Thai: งูสายทองลายแถบ (ngu sai thong lau thap) is a non-venomous terrestrial and semi-arboreal snake found in the forests of Southeast Asia, including Singapore's Central Nature Reserves.

G. baliodeirum is characterized by its dark brown or grayish-brown body with pale spots and a distinctive cream to orange or reddish belly, which gives it its name. This species is secretive, mostly active at night, and feeds on insects, spiders, and small lizards. 

Key Characteristics appearance of this species G.baliodeirum : it had a cylindrical body with smooth dorsal scales, it is brown to reddish-brown on its back with pale spots on the neck and forebody, and a distinct cream to orange-brown belly.

G.baliodeirum is terrestrial, it inhabits primary and secondary forests but is also known to climb shrubs. It is mostly a nocturnal species, though some daytime observations have been recorded. It's diet primarily consist of insects, spiders, and small lizards and is considered uncommon and endangered in Singapore.

​The Gongylosoma baliodeirum, or Orange-bellied Ringneck snake is a oviparous snake, it has a maximum length of approximately 500 mm (50 cm or about 20 inches.

The species is considered rather uncommon and spends much of its time hidden under leaf litter, which can make it vulnerable. In Singapore, it is locally regarded as "endangered" and "rare".

Gongylosoma baliodeira, the Orange-bellied Ringneck, is distributed across Southeast Asia, including Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Thailand, and the Natuna Islands.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Gongylosoma

Species : G. baliodeira

Binomial name : Gongylosoma baliodeira

(Heinrich Boie, 1827)

Picture

TNP : 16-08-25

This species above is 35 cm in length.

Sibynophis melanocephalus, also known as the Black-headed Collared Snake, Malayan many-toothed snake and 'White-lipped Black-headed Snake, ( In Thai: งูคอขวั้นหัวดำ, ngu khor khuan hua damm ) is a species of non-venomous colubrid snake species found in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam.

S. melanocephalus is characterized by its sleek body, scaly skin, and distinctive black head. Though the coloration and patterning in this species, S.melanocephalus can vary, it is typically brown with a black head and a light-colored collar behind the head and it has a slender body and smooth scales.

Its ventral scales or gastrosteges is yellowish in color that begin just behind the head gradually turning white till it's tail end, and it also has an orangish tint on the sides and black dots on the edges.

This coloration form helps distinguish it from similar species like the Triangled Black-headed Snake (Sibynophis triangularis)

The black-headed collared snake, Sibynophis melanocephalus is also known to exhibit caudal autotomy which is a defense mechanism where it can detach its tail to escape predators same as a lizard.

S. melanocephalus is a carnivore species known for its nocturnal and solitary habits and plays a role in the ecosystem as a predator of invertebrates and small vertebrates, it inhabits lowland forests and rural disturbed areas where it occurs under logs, parkland, freshwater marshes, dead leaves and at the base of tree buttresses in lowland forest.

The black-headed collared snake, Sibynophis melanocephalus is oviparous, typically reaches a total length of about 30-40 centimeters (approximately 12-16 inches) and can be reach up to a maximum of 60cm.

Juvenile snakes are much smaller, around 10-12 centimeters (4-5 inches) at hatching.

Sibynophis melanocephalus has most recently been assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2011 listed as Least Concern.

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Sibynophis

Species : S. melanocephalus

Binomial name : Sibynophis melanocephalus

(John Edward Gray, 1835)

PRP mangrove : 26-07-25

This neonate marine file snake is approx 28cm in length and had a rare pinkish tone unlike the others.

Acrochordidae is a family of snakes commonly known as file snakes, Java wart snakes, elephant trunk snakes, dogface snakes or wart snakes are a monogeneric family contained within the genus Acrochordus.

All members of Acrochordus are completely aquatic and nearly helpless on land, with the exception of Acrochordus granulatus which has hygroscopic skin that (helps them retain moisture and survive in different environments) that retards desiccation, (a process or mechanism that slows down or prevents the loss of moisture) allowing it to travel out of water.

This is a group of basal aquatic snakes found in Australia and tropical Asia. Currently, three species are recognized : the Arafura file snake (Acrochordus arafurae), the elephant trunk snake (Acrochordus javanicus), and the banded file snake (Acrochordus granulatus).

These snakes are native to the tropical regions of the eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific. They are fully aquatic, inhabiting both freshwater and marine environments.

Acrochordus granulatus (In Thai: งูผ้าขี้ริ้ว, ngu pakiliew) is the smallest of the three members of the family Acrochordidae, and is commonly called the "little file snake" or little wart snake, is a fully aquatic non-venomous snake found in coastal waters and estuaries from India through Southeast Asia to the Solomon 

Islands. No subspecies are currently recognized.

Acrochordus granulatus the Little file snakes can tolerate a broad range salinities, from salt to freshwater. Little file snakes have been found at depths ranging from 4 to 20 m, but generally prefer shallow water habitats because they must surface often for air.

File snakes can stay completely submerged for hours at a time while hunting for prey and can withstand both slow and fast-moving currents. File snake Acrochordus granulatus is a Ovoviviparous species, meaning the young develop inside eggs within the mother and are born live. It is also the only Acrochord that permanently inhabits estuaries as well as coastal seas, dawning its other common name the "marine file snake".

The body colour usually are grey, brown or black with some species exceptionally having a rare pink tone, its body pattern comes with bold white, pale grey, or pale brown bands, which may cross the whole back,

alternate, or form zigzags or other irregular patterning with pattern boldest in juveniles.

Members of Acrochordus also possess specialized tubercles with nerve endings on the skin between their scales which provide an extra sensory organ used to feel water movements of prey. As with the other members of the genus, Acrochordus granulatus has uniquely spinose scales with an almost rough texture.

File snakes are piscivores and their diet primarily consists of small fish, snails, and small crustaceans. More specifically, little file snakes prey heavily on sleeper fish and gobies.

Acrochordus granulatus is characterized by its loose, baggy skin and small, rough scales, it has hygroscopic skin that retards desiccation allowing it to travel out of water, it also have laterally compressed tails, and they can flatten dorsoventrally to assist in swimming.

Acrochordus granulatus are the most marine of the Acrochordidae and have specialized sublingual salt glands similar to those found in the true sea snake subfamily Hydrophiinae. Despite this, they are still susceptible to dehydration at sea and rely on freshwater lenses built up on the surface of marine water for freshwater.

Members of the true sea snake subfamily Hydrophiinae have been shown to exhibit this same behavior.

Acrochordus granulatus the file snakes are sexually dimorphic. Females are typically larger than males, with a larger head and longer and heavier body. These larger body proportions help to support the reproductive processes.

Average snout to vent length (SVL) in adult females is 686.2 mm, whereas average SVL in males is 648.6 mm. Body weight averages 168.5 g for females and 104 g for males. 

Females have an average head length of 19.57 mm and an average head width 13.2 mm. Males have an average head length of 17.8 mm and an average head width 11.11 mm. 

(Rieppel and Zaher, 2001; Sanders, et al., 2010; Voris and Glodek, 1920) Animal Diversity Web.

Acrochordus granulatus mates once every 2 years, typically during June or July. Gestation ranges from 5 to 7 months. Males produce sperm throughout the year, which moves through the ductus to the cloaca during mating periods.

Sperm levels vary depending on time of year and typically increases as mating approaches. Female file snakes accumulate yolk in high amounts during mating season. Females are capable of delaying conception and holding sperm until conditions are suitable for giving birth. 

(Houston and Shine, 1994; Mattison, 1995) Animal Diversity Web.

Little file snakes are nocturnal and spend a majority of their time hunting and swimming. During the day, they spend their time burrowed in the mud or in sea grass. When submerged, they can go several hours without surfacing for air. 

File snakes are fully aquatic, however, during high tides they may come on land to move into shallow pools of water. (Lillywhite and Ellis, 1994; Lillywhite, 1996; Shine, 1991) Animal Diversity Web.

The size of Acrochordus granulatus can vary, with some individuals being considerably smaller than the maximum length. While most Acrochordus granulatus are around 1 meter (3.28 feet) long, they can reach a maximum of 1.2 meters (4 feet).

Acrochordus granulatus, also known as the little file snake or marine file snake, is born with a birth mass ranging from 6 to 9 grams. They are typically around 200 mm (20 cm or 8 inches) in total length at birth.

Economic Importance for Humans : Positive.

Humans hunt little file snakes for their meat and for trade on the aquaria market. Occasionally, they are also captured for their skin, which can be used as a substitute for leather to make handbags, shoes, wallets and a number of other items. (Lillywhite, 1996; Shine, 1991) Animal Diversity Web.

Acrochordus granulatus has most recently been assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2020 listed as Least Concern. Conservation efforts are important to protect their habitats.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Acrochordidae

Genus : Acrochordus

Species : A. granulatus

Binomial name : Acrochordus granulatus

(Johann Gottlob Schneider, 1799)

"Dendrelaphis" refers to a genus of snakes commonly known as bronzebacks or tree snakes, found in Southeast Asia and Australia. They are non-venomous and belong to the family Colubridae. 

Dendrelaphis, exist in several species within the genus, each with unique characteristics and habitats.

Dendrelaphis is one of five genera belonging to the vine snake subfamily Ahaetuliinae, of which Dendrelaphis is most closely related to Chrysopelea.

They are known for their slender, elongated bodies, which aid in their arboreal (tree-dwelling) lifestyle.

Most Dendrelaphis species are active during the day. Its diet consist primarily on lizards, frogs, and small birds.

Dendrelaphis cyanochloris, belongs to the genus Dendrelaphis is a species of oviparous tree snake commonly known as Wall's bronzeback or the Blue bronzeback, is a species of colubrid snake found in Southeast Asia.

The blue bronzeback, Dendrelaphis cyanochloris, is predominantly found in lowland primary and mature secondary forests, often near water sources. It is an arboreal and diurnal species. They spend most of their time in trees and bushes and are active hunting during the day.

The Blue Bronzeback (Dendrelaphis cyanochloris) is best identified by the vibrant blue skin visible between the scales on its neck, especially when the snake inflates its neck as a defensive display.

It also lacks the three black lines on the posterior part of the body that are present in the similar Elegant Bronzeback. The blue bronzeback has a black stripe running from the front of the eye to the neck, and the eye is smaller than that of the Elegant Bronzeback.

These snakes are found in regions including India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, southern Thailand, Singapore and western Malaysia.

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Subfamily : Ahaetuliinae

Genus : Dendrelaphis

Species : D. cyanochloris

Binomial name : Dendrelaphis cyanochloris

(Wall, 1921)

Synonyms :

Dendrophis pictus Wall, 1921

Ahaetulla cyanochloris Wall, 1921

Dendrophis boiga subspecies

cyanochloris Wall, 1921

Dendrophispictus subspecies

cyanochlorisWall, 1921

Frasers Hill : 24-28-05-25

Lycodon is a genus of non venomous colubrid snakes, commonly known as wolf snakes. 

Lycodon butleri, also known commonly as Butler'swolf snake, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae.

It has a black and white banding pattern, the bands are more distinct in juveniles and fade in adults.

Lycodon butleri is oviparous (egg-laying). It is partly arboreal and a terrestrial species, found in montane forests at elevations between 1,100 and 1,500 m (3,600 and 4,900 ft) above sea-level.

Its diet primarily consists of small bats, frogs, geckos, and lizards, it is named after British zoologist Arthur Lennox Butler. The species is native to southern Thailand and peninsular Malaysia.

Phylum  : Chordata

Class  : Reptilia

Order  : Squamata

Suborder  : Serpentes

Family  : Colubridae

Genus  : Lycodon

Species : L. butleri

Binomial name : Lycodon butleri

Boulenger, 1900

Frasers Hill : 24-28-05-25

Macrocalamus is a genus of mountain reed snakes, a group of fossorial (living underground) snakes found in the upland areas of Peninsular Malaysia. It is a genus of snakes of the family Colubridae

Chan-ard's reed , Macrocalamus chanardi, is a species of non venomous, oviparous snake in the Colubridae family. It has a robust, sub-cylindrical body with a head that is the same width as the body. The overall body color is brown, with a pair of pale, broken dorso-lateral stripes bordered by a dark stripe. The ventral surface (underside) is red, pink, or orange.

It is a fossorial (burrowing) snake, often found hiding beneath leaf litter or fallen trees and rotten tree logs. Its slender body allows it to squeeze into tiny spaces, making it difficult to find.

M. chanardi has a maximum size of 26 cm (10 inches). Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates like slugs, worms, and insect larvae.

M. chanardi is endemic to Malaysia, it can be found specifically in lower montane forests at elevations between 1100 and 1500 meters confined to the hill resorts of Maxwell Hill, Cameron Highlands, and Fraser's Hill in Peninsular Malaysia.

Phylum  : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Macrocalamus

Species : M. chanardi

Binomial name : Macrocalamus chanardi

David & Pauwels, 2005

10-05-2025

This juvenile found above is about 80cm in full length.

Ptyas is a genus of colubrid snakes. This genus is one of several colubrid genera colloquially called "rat snakes" or "ratsnakes". The generic name Ptyas derives from Ancient Greek πτυάς, (ptuás) meaning "spitter", which referred to a kind of snake believed to spit venom in the eyes of humans, although in reality none of the Ptyas are known to spit venom.

There are 13 species recognized in this genus :

• Ptyas carinata (Günther, 1858) – keeled rat snake

• Ptyas dhumnades (Cantor, 1842) – Cantor's rat snake

• Ptyas dipsas (Schlegel, 1837) – Sulawesi black racer

• Ptyas doriae Boulenger, 1888 – Doria's green snake

• Ptyas fusca (Günther, 1858) – white-bellied rat snake, brown rat snake

• Ptyas herminae (Boettger, 1895) – Sakishima green snake

• Ptyas korros (Schlegel, 1837) – Chinese ratsnake, Indo-Chinese ratsnake

• Ptyas luzonensis (Günther, 1873) – smooth-scaled mountain rat snake

• Ptyas major (Günther, 1858) – Chinese green snake

• Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) – Oriental rat snake, Indian rat snake

• Ptyas multicincta (Roux, 1907) – many-banded green snake, North China green snake

• Ptyas nigromarginata (Blyth, 1854) – green rat snake, black-bordered rat snake

• Ptyas semicarinata (Hallowell, 1861) – Ryukyu green snake

Ptyas korros, commonly known as the Java rat snake, Chinese rat snake or Indo-Chinese rat snake,

​(In Thai: งูสิงธรรมดา, ngu sing tammada) is a species of colubrid snake endemic to Southeast Asia.

The Indochinese rat snake is oviparous, it lays several clutches per year, it can lay between 6 to 14 eggs, which hatch in about 45-55 days between the months of May and June. Hatchlings are about 25 cm long. Adult maximum size are approx 2.6 metres.

Young specimens with transverse series of round whitish spots or with narrow yellow transverse bars. The body colour of P. korros are Brown or olive above, the scales on the posterior part of the body and on the tail often yellow and edged with black. Lower surface yellow.

Length of head and body 1,080 mm (43 in) and tail 700 mm (28 in). Snout obtuse, projecting, eye very large. Rostral visible from above, internasals shorter than the prefrontals, frontal as long as its distance from the tip of the snout or a little longer, as long as the parietals, two or three loreals, a large preocular, sometimes touching the frontal, a small subocular below, two postocular, temporals 2 + 2, eight upper labials, fourth and fifth entering the eye, five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior. Dorsal scales smooth or feebly keeled on the posterior part of the body.

P. korros is mainly terrestrial but can be found high in bamboo and in trees at rest. It occurs up to 3,000 m in elevation, it is non venomous, bite from a adult species may cause a pain but is completely harmless to humans.

This diurnal and crepuscular species is a fast-moving snake and mainly a ground-dweller which has adapted to grasslands, forest clearings and edges, mangroves, open tropical dry forests, savannahs, scrublands, agricultural landscapes, oil palm plantations, cultivated areas, and suburban areas. It is very common in paddy fields, where it acts as a pest control agent feeding on rodents, but also eats birds, lizards, frogs, and other snakes.

P. korros is distributed in the following countries : Nepal, Myanmar, Cambodia, China (Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Guangxi, Hunan, Yunnan, Hong Kong), Taiwan, India (Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh (Namdapha - Changlang district, Chessa, Chimpu, Itanagar - Papum Pare district), Tripura, Bangladesh, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali), Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, West Malaysia and Singapore.

This is a widely distributed species found throughout Southeast Asia, with evidence of population declines over much of this area.

Neither generation length nor the scale of declines throughout this snake's global range are well-known, however, it is plausible that future research into native subpopulations will reveal declines sufficient to justify listing this species as threatened based on criterion A, and it is therefore globally listed as Near Threatened.

Specifically, Criterion A considers past population declines, future projections, and historical trends to determine the level of risk.

IUCN Criterion A refers to a reduction in geographic distribution over any of the specified time periods. It assesses whether a species is at risk of extinction based on a decline in its range, including past, future, or since 1750.

In South Asia populations of this snake are more stable and regionally it would meet Least Concern.

Last assessed : 08 September 2019

The Javan Rat Snake Ptyas korros has most recently been assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2019. Ptyas korros is listed as Near Threatened under criteria A2d.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species uses a set of criteria to categorize species based on their extinction risk. Criterion A2d specifically refers to a species where the population has experienced a decline of at least 20% over three generations, and the decline is continuing. This continuing decline can be inferred from any combination of observed, estimated, inferred, or projected population reduction.

The species may be threatened by overharvesting in much of its range north of Peninsular Malaysia, and possibly also in Indonesia, and more research is needed to determine the scale of apparent declines and whether these are widespread throughout this area or localized. There do not appear to be any threats to this species in South Asia.

Under the Use and Trade Information, this species P. korros due to it's large-bodied and common near human habitation, and therefore is consumed locally in parts of its range, especially in northeastern Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Viet Nam. It is the most common species of snake seen for sale for human food in markets in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia.

It is also sold alive in markets and used in the snake wine industry in Viet Nam and live animals are exported from Myanmar and Vietnam in large numbers to supply markets in Yunnan for meat and medicine.

Dried specimens are exported from Indonesia to Viet Nam and from there to China for use in traditional medicine. Trade in this species is banned in Thailand, although illegal collection and trade occurs to supply demand for food and medicine, there is less interest in this species than in the larger Ptyas mucosa.

There is no use in Peninsular Malaysia, which has no culture of wildlife food markets and export to Chinese markets is limited or non-existent.

Ptyas korros, Javan Rat Snake Assessment by : Stuart, B.L., Grismer, L., Thy, N., Chan-Ard, T., Nguyen, T.Q., Ghosh, A., Khan, M. & Tshewang, S.

​Common names includes :

​Javan rat snake, Chinese rat snake or Indo-Chinese rat snake,

​(In Thai: งูสิงธรรมดา, ngu sing tammada)

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Ptyas

Species : P. korros

Binomial name : Ptyas korros

(Schlegel, 1837)

Synonyms

• Coluber korros Schlegel, 1837

• Coryphodon korros — A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1854

• Ptyas korros — Cope, 1860

• Zamenis korros — Boulenger, 1890

• Ptyas korros — Stejneger, 1907

• Zamenis korros — Wall, 1908

• Liopeltis libertatis Barbour, 1910

• Ptyas korros — M.A. Smith, 1943

28-03-2025 : T7

Dendrelaphis is a genus of colubrid snakes, it isdistributed from Pakistan, India and southern China to Indonesia, Timor-Leste, the Philippines, Australia, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. There are over forty described species.

Asian species are known commonly as bronzebacks, while the Australo-Papuan species are simply called tree snakes. All are non-venomous and entirely harmless to humans.

Dendrelaphis is one of five genera belonging to the vine snake subfamily Ahaetuliinae, of which Dendrelaphis is most closely related to Chrysopelea.

Bronzebacks range in total length (including tail) from 2 feet (0.61 m) to up to 6 feet (1.8 m). All species have a slender body with a long tail. Males are shorter in length and brighter in coloration, they also tend to be more active. Females are stouter with duller or darker colorations and are less active.

Typical coloration includes red, brown, or orange on the head with bronze, brown, or olive-green running down the length of the back. The underside of the body is usually bright to pale green or yellow. They have big eyes and bright red tongues. The tail is fully prehensile.

The primary prey of Dendrelaphis species consists of lizards and frogs, but the larger species are capable of taking birds, bats, and small rodents.

Dendrelaphis haasi. The specific name, haasi, is in honor of Dutch herpetologist C.P.J. de Haas. Dendrelaphis haasi is oviparous, it belongs to the genus Dendrelaphis, which contains 48 other described species.

This species is native to Southeast Asia it is also known commonly as Haas' bronzeback, Haas's bronzeback snake, and Haas's bronzeback tree snake, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae.

D. haasi is diurnal and fully arboreal. The preferred natural habitat of D. haasi is forest at altitudes near to sea level, but it has also been found in gardens.

D. haasi is slender and has a very long tail, which is 34% to 38% of its total length. The holotype has a snout-to-vent length of 57.5 cm (22.6 in), plus a tail length of 33 cm (13 in).

Geographic range distribution of D. haasi can be found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.

​

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Subfamily : Ahaetuliinae

Genus : Dendrelaphis

Species : D. haasi

Binomial name : Dendrelaphis haasi

van Rooijen & G. Vogel, 2008

Sedim forest 22-25-08-24

Pareas is a genus of Asian snakes in the family Pareidae. All species in the genus Pareas are harmless to humans.

The keeled slug-eating snake Pareas carinatus, (In Thai: งูกินทากเกล็ดสัน, ngu gin thaag gled sann) , is a species of non venomous snake in the family Pareidae.

Keeled slug-eating snakes live in or near forests. They are nocturnal and mostly arboreal, and as the common name suggests, they feed exclusively on snails and slugs.

The body of this snake is slender with a short and round head, with large eyes. The upper body is brown, olive-brown, or reddish brown, with small patches and faint blackish spot markings along the length of the body.

On the back of the eye is a black stripe and black color on the neck back neck. The lower part of the body is brown or yellowish.

The Keeled slug snake Pareas carinatus inhabits mainly the lowlands and lower montane forests. Her main habitat are forests. This snake is active at dusk and at night near the ground where it looks for food. The snake is moving slowly. It feeds on snails and slugs.

Pareas carinatus are oviparous. The females are able to reproduce during the whole year. Clutches contain between 3 and 6 eggs. The newborn are between 15 and 18 cm in length.

It is relatively widespread in Southeast Asia, from southern China (Yunnan) to Burm and Indochina to the Malay Archipelago (Borneo, Java, Lombok,

​Sumatra, Bali).

Two subspecies are recognized: P. c. carinatus and P. c. unicolor, the latter being confined to Cambodia.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Pareidae

Genus : Pareas

Species : P. carinatus

Binomial name : Pareas carinatus

(Boie, 1828)

Synonyms :

Amblycephalus carinatus Boie, 1828

Sedim forest 22-25-08-24

Aplopeltura is a genus of snakes of the family Pareidae. It contains a single species, Aplopeltura boa, the blunthead slug snake or blunt-headed slug-eating snake.

It is a small, non-venomous snake. The species can be found in southern Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines. It is known to feed on slugs and snails especially operculate species and possibly small vertebrates, like small lizards.

Their jaws are more mobile than those of most other vertebrates. With their mandibles, they cut the operculum off from their prey with a unique "sawing" motion.

The Blunt-headed Slug Snake inhabits lowland and lower montane forests, it is nocturnal and arboreal in habits, and is typically found perched on low vegetation.

Aplopeltura boa in Thai : งูกินทากหัวโหนก (Ngu Gin Taag Hua Nog) is a very unique species of snake, it has an unusual defensive posture, this snake coils itself up like a pool of poop and it also looks like a pocket spring. This may possibly be unique to the species.

A. boa has been observed performing simple death feigning behavior. The snake rolls itself into a spiral with its belly up, staying still until the threat leaves. Unlike other death feigning snakes, A. boa does not emit a foul odor or open its mouth.

Its body is slender and laterally compressed, and its head is short and blunt. Its body is greenish brown to reddish brown, with the latter colour comprising vaguely-defined saddles.

Some examples may bear cream spots on the flanks. Its tail is around one-third of the length of its body. There are pale markings on the head, and the eyes are large.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Pareidae

Genusb : Aplopeltura

Duméril, 1853

Species : A. boa

Binomial name : Aplopeltura boa

Boie, 1828

Sedim forest : 22-25-08-24

Pareas is a genus of Asian snakes in the family Pareidae. All species in the genus Pareas are harmless to humans.

Pareidae is a small family of snakes found largely in southeast Asia, with an isolated subfamily endemic to southwestern India. It encompasses 42 species in four genera divided into two subfamilies : Pareinae and Xylophiinae.

Both families are thought to have diverged from one another during the early-mid Eocene, about 40-50 million years ago.

Pareidae was once considered a subfamily of Colubridae (called "Pareatinae"), but since 2013 it is known that pareids are not closely related to colubrids.

Members of the subfamily Pareinae are active, predatory snakes. Many are snail-eating snakes that have asymmetrical lower jaws, allowing them to pry the soft bodies of snails from their spiral shells.

One species, Pareas iwasakii, has an average of 17.5 teeth in its left mandible and 25 teeth in its right mandible. They lack teeth on the anterior part of the maxillary. They lack a mental groove and have a blunt short head with a long thin body.

The majority of species are nocturnal and arboreal. Predation by pareids on dextral (clockwise-coiled or "right handed") snails is thought to favor the evolution of sinistral (counter-clockwise or "left handed") snails in southeast Asia, where 12% of snail species are sinistral (as opposed to 5% worldwide).

The Xylophiinae have a very different lifestyle, being primarily ground-dwelling, burrowing snakes, unlike the more arboreal nature of their northern cousins.

Genera and species : Subfamily Pareinae

Aplopeltura (1 species)

Asthenodipsas (9 species)

Pareas (27 species)

Subfamily Xylophiinae

Xylophis (5 species)

The mountain slug snake (Pareas margaritophorus), in Thai: งูกินทากจุดขาว, ngu gin thaag jud khao, also known as the white-spotted slug snake, is a small, harmless species of snake that is rather common in South, South-East, and East Asia, and feeds on small invertebrates.

Mountain slug snakes are forest-dwellers that are about small to medium-sized. They have fangs that are located on their lower jaw in which they can use to remove the snail from their shells to eat.

The Mountain slug snakes feed on soft-bodied invertebrates like snails, slugs and earthworms. It is easily identified by the yellow, orange, white and red collar with a grey or brown body which is adorned with scattered black scales, most of which have a white spot anteriorally, and which can form narrow, irregular bars. The underside is pale with dark spots. They have blunt heads that are wider than their actual body width. It averages about 47 cm in length.

The mountain slug snake is a nocturnal species that is active on the forest floor or on shallow vegetation that are usually found in lowland or lower mountain forests that are at the elevation of 1500 meters.

It is found in NE India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Peninsular Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Hong Kong, Singapore and China.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Pareidae

Genus : Pareas

Species: P. margaritophorus

Binomial name : Pareas margaritophorus

(Jan, 1866

Synonyms :

Leptognathus margaritophorus Jan, 1866

Pares Moellendorffi Boettger, 1885

Amblycephalus tamdaoensis Bourret, 1935

Pareas margaritophorus — Smith, 1943

Dipsas margaritophorus — Nguyen and Ho, 1996

T7 : 19-8-24

Oligodon is genus of colubrid snakes that was first described by Austrian zoologist Leopold Fitzinger in 1826.

This genus is widespread throughout central and tropical Asia. The snakes of this genus are commonly known as kukri snakes.

The eight-striped kukri snake, eight-lined kukri snake, or Grace's kukri snake (Oligodon octolineatus) is a species of snake of the family Colubridae.

The Eight-lined Kukri Snake, which gets its name from lines that run along its body which has a striking appearance. This snake had a light brown coloration, black stripes and an orange stripe running along its body makes it an interesting snake to observe.

These nocturnal snakes are often found in leaf litter, it is a non-venomous species. The species is gonochoric and reproduces sexually with oviparity and can be found in countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Indonesia.

The species in the genus Oligodon are egg eaters and are usually under 90 cm (35 in) in total length (including tail).

Different species display widely variable patterns and colorations. They subsist mostly by scavenging the eggs of birds and reptiles. Besides eggs, species of this genus also feeds on lizards, frogs, and small rodents.

Oligodon is a rear-fanged snake genus. All member species have a set of enlarged teeth placed in the back of the upper jaws, as well as functional Duvernoy's glands.

They are not dangerous to humans, though. Bites by some species have been reported to bleed excessively, suggesting presence of anticoagulants in the Duvernoy's gland secretions. Species of Oligodon are mostly nocturnal, and live on the floor of mature forests.

The common name of the genus comes from the kukri, a distinctively shaped Nepalese knife, which is similar in shape to the broad, flattened, curved hind teeth of Oligodon species.

These teeth are specially adapted for their main diet of eggs, the teeth cut open eggs as they are being swallowed by the snake, allowing for easier digestion.

There are 84 recognized species in the genus Oligodon according to Reptile Database as of April 2023.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Oligodon

Species : O. octolineatus

Binomial name : Oligodon octolineatus

(Schneider, 1801)

T7 : 30-10-23

Calamaria is a large genus of non venomous dwarf burrowing snakes of the family Colubridae. ​The genus contains 66 recognized species and is endemic to Asia.

The genus Calamaria has far more species than all other genera in the subfamily combined, and its geographic range is more extensive than the combined ranges of the other genera.

Consequently, more is known about it than about the other genera, although Calamariinae is still among the most poorly known groups of snakes in the world, especially for its relatively high species diversity.

Species in the genus Calamaria share the following characteristics. The eight to 11 maxillary teeth are subequal, the anterior mandibular teeth are somewhat longer than the posterior ones. The head is not distinct from neck, the eye is small with a round pupil, the nostril is pierced in a minute nasal scale. No loreal, internasal, or temporal scales are present, the preocular can be present or absent, the parietals contact the labials.

The body is cylindrical with smooth dorsal scales, without apical pits, in 13 rows. The tail is short, the subcaudals are paired. Calamariinae snakes are small, burrowing forest-dwelling snakes that eat worms, small frogs and insect larvae. Very few species of colubrid snakes have as few dorsal scale rows as Calamaria, and none have more extensive fusion of the head scales. Most species have laterally compressed, flask-shaped maxillary teeth, maximum Size : 65 cm

Calamaria lumbricoidea (Thai name: งูพงอ้อหลากลาย (Ngu Plong Ao Lag Lai) commonly known as variable reed snake, is a species of dwarf snake in the family Colubridae.

They have sexual reproduction, juveniles of this species are far more colorful and conspicuous than the adults. It is found in Thailand, W. Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Philippines.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Calamaria

Species : C. lumbricoidea

Binomial name : Calamaria lumbricoidea

Boie, 1827

Lycodon is a genus of colubrid snakes, commonly known as wolf snakes. They are non venomous, but many members of this genus strongly resemble the venomous kraits in appearance, an example of Emsleyan mimicry.

Lycodon subcinctus, commonly known as the Malayan banded wolf snake and White-banded wolf snake 

(In Thai: งูปล้องฉนวนบ้าน, ngu plong cha nuan baan) is a species of snake of the family Colubridae. This snake has banded pattern that resembles a Krait.

This wide-ranging species inhabits lowland forest and montane habitats up to at least 1500 metres elevation (Tweedie, 1957). It is most generally encountered by night on the forest floor, but is also considered to be arboreal. The body is slender, and the somewhat flattened head is of the same width as the body, it can grow to a maximum length of 90cm 3ft.

Juveniles and half-grown specimens are adorned with numerous widely-spaced pale bands, either white or cream, which are wider at the base and narrower dorsally, these are less apparent in the posterior section of the body and the tail.

The background colour is black or dark brown, in adult specimens banding may be totally absent. 

L. subcinctus feeds on lizards, especially geckoes and small forest skinks, it kill its prey by constriction and swallows head first.

L.subcinctus is oviparous, it Lays between 5-11 eggs, which hatch in 1.5 months, it is a species of colubrid snake found in Thailand, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Philippines, Vietnam, West Malaysia, Singapore and India (Nicobar Islands).

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Lycodon

Species : L. subcinctus

Binomial name : Lycodon subcinctus

Boie, 1827

T15 : A neonate at 30cm in length

Dendrelaphis is a genus of colubrid snakes, distributed from Pakistan, India and southern China to Indonesia, Timor-Leste, the Philippines, Australia, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.

There are over forty recognized species described to date. Asian species are known commonly as bronzebacks while the Australo-Papuan species are simply called treesnakes and all of this species are non-venomous and entirely harmless to humans.

Bronzebacks range in total length (including tail) from 2 feet (0.61 m) to up to 6 feet (1.8 m). All species have a slender body with a long tail. Males are shorter in length and brighter in coloration, they also tend to be more active. Females are stouter with duller or darker colorations and are less active.

Typical coloration includes red, brown, or orange on the head with bronze, brown, or olive-green running down the length of the back. The underside of the body is usually bright to pale green or yellow. They have big eyes and bright red tongues. The tail is fully prehensile.

The primary prey of Dendrelaphis species consists of lizards and frogs, but the larger species are capable of taking birds, bats, and small rodents.

Dendrelaphis kopsteini, Kopstein's bronzeback, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae, it is also known as the Red-necked Bronzeback, this species was formerly confused with other bronzebacks, including the Elegant Bronzeback Dendrelaphis formosus, but since 2007 has been considered a species in its own right.

The distinguishing feature of Kopstein's Bronzeback is considered to be the orange-red colouration in the back of the neck, this is best seen when the snake expands its neck region. Further back from the head and neck region the scales are blue and brown, with a vague pattern of narrow bars.

The top of the head is deep bronze, and a dark stripe extends from the snout through the eye to the start of the neck. The lips, throat and underside of the neck are pale yellow. The species is found in Thailand, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Dendrelaphis

Species : D. kopsteini

Binomial name : Dendrelaphis kopsteini

G. Vogel & van Rooijen, 2007

T15 : 19-07-23

Oligodon is genus of colubrid snakesthat was first described by Austrian zoologist Leopold Fitzinger in 1826. This genus is widespread throughout central and tropical Asia. The snakes of this genus are commonly known as kukri snakes.

The species in the genus Oligodon are egg eaters and are usually under 90 cm (35 in) in total length (including tail). Different species display widely variable patterns and colorations. They subsist mostly by scavenging

the eggs of birds and reptiles. Besides eggs, species of this genus also feeds on lizards, frogs, and small rodents.

Oligodon is a rear-fanged snake genus. All member species have a set of enlarged teeth placed in the back of the upper jaws, as well as functional Duvernoy's glands. They are not dangerous to humans, though. Bites by some species have been reported to bleed excessively, suggesting presence of anticoagulants in the Duvernoy's gland secretions. 

Species of Oligodon are mostly nocturnal, and live on the floor of mature forests. Oligodon signatus, also known as the half-keeled kukri snake, the barred kukri snake, or the banded kukri snake, is a species of snake of the family Colubridae. (In Thai: งูปี่แก้วหัวศร, ngu pi kaew hua sorn) it is a non venomous snake.

This rarely encountered Barred Kukri Snake, little is known of the ecology of this species but it appears to be secretive in habits, remaining largely concealed under leaf litter, treefalls and other forest floor debris.

It is considered to be a rare snake. It inhabits lowland primary or mature secondary forest and is nocturnal.

The body colour of O.signatus is dark brown (sometimes with a faint purplish tinge), and the dorsum is adorned with red cross-bars which are either narrow and extend onto each flank, or are truncated and triangular in shape.

Towards the head these bars assume a forward-pointing chevron pattern, which is typical of many species of kukri snake. The underside is reddish-pink. The body is moderately slender and rounded in cross-section. 

The head is short and of the same diameter as the neck. 

The Barred Kukri Snake Oligodon signatus is recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Java.

There are 84 recognized species in the genus Oligodon according to Reptile Database as of April 2023.

Half-Keeled Kukri Snake Oligodon signatus has most recently been assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2011. Oligodon signatus is listed as Least Concern.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Oligodon

Species : O. signatus

Binomial name : Oligodon signatus

(Günther, 1864)

T15 : 25-05-23

Coelognathus is a genus of seven rat snakes from South and Southeast Asia that were formerly assigned to the genus Elaphe.

Elaphe is a genus of snakes in the family Colubridae. Elaphe is one of the main genera of the rat snakes, which are found in many regions of the northern hemisphere. Elaphe species are medium to large constrictors by nature. Although all of the species in Elaphe are non venomous, bites from rat snakes are still irritably painful and can potentially cause bacterial infections, especially due to the saliva.

Like most of the rat snakes, Elaphe spp. generally have slender but sturdy bodies, square heads, and extremely flat bellies. Their sizes range from large medium to very large, growing even as large as 2.75m (108 in). Elaphe spp. have large numbers of vertebrae, ribs, and ventral scales, but few rows of dorsal scales, which are characterized by having slight keels.

In cross section, Elaphe spp. are shaped like a loaf of bread, the flat belly meeting the sides of the body at an angle. This special physical characteristic is well observed in Elaphe obsoleta (now considered Pantherophis obsoletus), whose belly scales curve upward. The curving of the ventral scales gives them better traction for tree climbing.

The color and pattern of Elaphe spp. are quite variable and hard to generalize. Internally, Elaphe spp. do not have any observable vestiges of hind limbs or coronoid bones of the lower jaw like any other members of the family Colubridae.

Another important characteristic of Elaphe as part of the Colubridae is the presence of Duvernoy's gland, a modified salivary and digestive gland. In addition, Elaphe spp. have equal and smooth maxillary teeth. The teeth are small and slightly curved, and occur in several rows. The curved teeth help fix the prey and prevent them from escaping once they are caught.

Elaphe spp. have very developed sensory organs which support their daily activities. They have internal ears that enables them to detect sounds at low frequencies. The ears consist of a single ear bone connected to a jaw bone. Compared to other snakes, they are considered to have highly developed vision that allows them to detect the movement of their predators and prey. The eyes are protected by single transparent brilles.

In addition, the analysis of scents is carried out by Jacobson's organ in the palate. To stimulate Jacobson's organ, they use their tongues to transport air and ground molecules to Jacobson's organ. Then, the organ analyzes the molecules to identify the scent. Among these detectable scents are pheromones, which indicate the presence of other snakes and their reproductive readiness.

The lifespan of Elaphe spp. is generally 15 years. Males live a little longer than females. Elaphe spp. generally reach sexual maturity after 18–24 months. They usually mate with the opposite sex after emerging from hibernation in the spring. The gestation period of females is around 1.5 months, and females can lay up to 30 eggs in a clutch, the number varying between species.

Elaphe spp. hibernate, especially those that live in cold regions, because snakes are cold-blooded, which makes their body temperature susceptible to the temperature of their environments. Thus, they need to maintain their body energy by switching locations and remaining physiologically inactive when winter comes.

The hibernacula sites vary depending on the habitats they live in, yet the most important requirement of a hibernaculum site is that it needs to be frost-free. Some Elaphe spp. hibernate in the rock crevices, rock faults, and burrows. However, other species choose to hibernate in rotting logs, roots of trees, and hollow spaces in elevated tree trunks. Some snakes that live close to human communities even hibernate in old wells and barns.

Based on morphological evidence and protein similarities, in 2001, Helfenberger revalidated the name Coelognathus that had originally been proposed by Leopold Fitzinger in 1843. The distinction between Coelognathus and Elaphe was further supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence and additional morphological evidence in 2005.

Coelognathus flavolineatus, (In Thai: งูทางมะพร้าวดำ, ngu taang mapao dam) common name Black copper rat snake, Yellow-striped snake, Yellow-striped trinket snake, Yellow-striped racer, Malayan Racer, Ular Kopi (Bahasa Indonesia), Ular Laju Biasa (Malay), Ular Laju Ekor Hitam (Malay), Ular Selingsing Batu (Malay) is a species of colubrid snake found in Southeast Asia.

This species was previously recognized in the genus Elaphe. They have sexual reproduction. Maximum size is 1.8m C. flavolineatus can be distinguished by the colour Yellow, brown, with black stripes behind eyes stopping at neck and additional lines from mid sections long spine fading towards the tail which is charcoal black, black markings along the sides for the first third of the body, it occurs in parts of Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India (Andaman Is.) Indonesia (Jawa, Kalimantan, Sumatera, Bali) Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.

The non-venomous (C. flavolineatus) Malayan Racer or also called Black Copper Rat Snake is reckoned to be both terrestrial and arboreal, is often found in lowland forests, but has adapted well to disturbed habitats such as parklands and open, agricultural areas such as coffee farms and rice paddies. This snake preys on rats and mice which are harmful pests to farmers. There are many color variants of this species which can be gray yellow, black, or a combination of both.

Juvenile stage this snake has a bluish gray color with a yellow line running along its back. Many snakes have significant variance in coloration and pattern even within the same species. There can also be extreme differences in appearance from juveniles to adults so it is important to never assume you have properly identified a snake.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus :Coelognathus

Species : C. flavolineatus

Binomial name : Coelognathus flavolineatus

(Schlegel, 1837)

Synonyms :

Coluber flavolineatus Schlegel, 1837

Elaphe flavolineat

T15 : 06-05-23

The Cylindrophiidae are a monotypic family of secretive, semifossorial, non-venomous snakes containing the genus Cylindrophis found in southeastern Asia from Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and the Malay Archipelago, including Singapore, both peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak, and Indonesia, including the Greater Sunda Islands (Borneo [including Sarawak and Brunei]), Sumatra and Java as well as some of their offshore islands), Sulawesi, the Lesser Sunda Islands (Lombok, Komodo, Flores, Sumbawa, Timor [including Timor-Leste]), and east to the Maluku Islands (Halmahera, Wetar, Damar, Babar, and into the Tanimbar Archipelago).

The eastern distributional limit, sometimes given as the Aru Islands off the southwestern coast of New Guinea, is questionable. They are also found in Sri Lanka (but not India) and in southeastern China (Fujian, Hong Kong, and on Hainan Island).

All members of the genus Cylindrophis share the following five characteristics :

1) A relatively blunt head, not distinct from the neck, with minute eyes and a mental groove.

2) The absence of well-developed ventral scales, with ventral scales only slightly larger than or equal in size to the dorsal scales.

3) The presence of a pair of pelvic spurs in both sexes.

4) A very short tail, often with conspicuous ventral coloration.

5) Contrasting light and dark ventral blotching.

The body is cylindrical, with a near-uniform diameter, which leads to the name "pipe snakes". All species are small- to medium-sized, with total lengths ranging from 12.5 cm (5 inches) to 85.7 cm (34 inches).

The teeth are moderate and subequal, with 10–12 in each maxilla and none in the premaxilla. There are no fangs and no evidence of venom. The eyes have round or vertically subelliptic pupils. The head has large symmetrical shields, with the nostrils in a single nasal, which forms a suture with its fellow behind the rostral. Loreal scale is present, a small postocular scale is present. The dorsal scales are smooth, in 17, 19, 21, or 23 rows depending on the species.

When threatened, Cylindrophis flatten the posterior portion of their body and arch it above the ground to display their conspicuous ventral pattern, while the head remains concealed among the body coils. Only one species, C. yamdena, lacks a bold ventral pattern in most individuals, having instead an orange-pink belly without bands or spots.

Little is known of the foraging or mating behavior of Cylindrophis. At least one species uses constriction to subdue its prey which include elongate vertebrates : reptiles (snakes), amphibians (caecilians), and fish (eels). Prey are swallowed from one end using rotational movements of the braincase and mandibles, a process that takes up to 30 minutes for larger prey. This is distinct from the 'pterygoid walk' used by most other species of alethinophidian snakes, which have greater mobility of most skull bones than Cylindrophis.

Many recent studies based on molecular data suggest that Cylindrophiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to another family of pipesnakes, Anomochilidae or dwarf pipesnakes. Probably this will be resolved by including Anomochilidae within Cylindrophiidae in the future, but as of May 2018 no formal proposal to do so has been made.

In a broader sense, Cylindrophiidae & Anomochilidae are most closely related to Uropeltidae, a family of burrowing snakes from southern India & Sri Lanka. These three families are together called the Uropeltoidea and probably last shared a common ancestor in the Eocene, about 45 million years ago. 

Uropeltoids are probably most closely related to pythonoids and then to booids. These three groups probably last shared a common ancestor in the late Cretaceous, about 75 million years ago.

Cylindrophis is a burrowing snakes and most have a banded pattern on the belly. Currently, 13 species are recognized, all with no subspecies. Common names include Asian pipe snakes or Asian cylinder snakes.

The red-tailed pipe snake, red cylinder snake, or common pipe snake (Cylindrophis ruffus) is a nonvenomous cylindrophiid snake species found in Southeast Asia. No subspecies are currently recognized.

Adults can grow to 39 in (1 m) in length. The dorsal scales are smooth, in 19 or 21 rows, with 186-245 ventrals, which are not quite twice as large as the contiguous dorsal scales; the anal plate is divided, and five to 10 subcaudals.

Compared to other snakes, C. ruffus have a limited gape size. Their primary diet consists of long, thin prey animals including snakes, caecilians, and eels.

Cylindrophis ruffus is a lowland species of asian pipe snake, generally preferring swampy, forested habitats and it leads a burrowing lifestyle. Its body shape is cylindrical in cross-section and is ideally suited for pushing through soft soil and compacted leaf litter. It feeds mainly on other snakes and eels, and is a good swimmer.

Its body is dark but iridescent, with indistinct lighter, sometimes reddish, bands. The blunt tail has reddish colouration which it displays when threatened.

Typically there is a broad, light band on the back of the neck. There is an irregular pattern of pale bars and blotches on the underside. Its head is short and blunt, and of the same width as the body, and the eyes are small.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Cylindrophiidae

Genus : Cylindrophis

Species : C. ruffus

Binomial name : Cylindrophis ruffus

(Laurenti, 1768)

T15: 14-03-23

Rat snakes are members along with kingsnakes, milk snakes, vine snakes and indigo snakes of the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae. They are medium to large constrictors and are found throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. They feed primarily on rodents. Many species make attractive and docile pets and one, the corn snake, is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world.

Like all snakes, they can be defensive when approached too closely, handled, or restrained. However, rat snake bites are not dangerous to humans. Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. 

Rat snakes were long believed to be completely non venomous, but recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans.

Previously, most rat snakes were assigned to the genus Elaphe, but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002. For the purpose of this article, names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database.

Rat snakes usually hunt and kill mice and other small animals by grasping with their teeth to prevent escape, wrapping their body around that of the prey, and suffocating the prey by constriction. All snakes are ectotherm species, meaning they depend on the temperature of the environment to maintain homeostasis.

Although it is predicted that the current rate of climate change will be too rapid for many reptiles and amphibian species to adapt or to evolve, studies have suggested that a warmer climate may actually be beneficial to rat snake species.

Global warming also poses less threats to rat snakes in temperate zones than in tropical zones as rat snake species in temperate zones can tolerate broader ranges of temperature. Global climate change will increase both day and night time temperatures. This will make the night time environment more thermally suitable for rat snakes to hunt, thereby making them more active at night.

Increasing night time activity allows rat snakes to catch larger prey such as birds, since female birds usually incubate their eggs in the nest at night and have decreased ability to detect rat snakes due to poor visibility conditions.

Global warming may also lead to changes in predation. Rat snakes are prey species to predators like hawks. While rat snakes are being hunted during the day, being more active at night due to warmer temperatures may allow rat snakes to be less vulnerable to predation from hawks.

A warming climate also enhances food digestion in rat snakes thereby making them more efficient, which enables rat snake individuals to grow larger in size and allowing them to consume more prey. In comparison to rat snake species at relatively colder regions, rat snake species at lower latitudes tend to be larger in size due to warmer climate conditions.

As the global climate warms, the average body size of rat snakes at higher latitudes will become larger, which will allow the species to catch more prey and thus increase their overall reproductive success. Increasing temperatures due to climate change have increased the nocturnal activity of rat snakes, especially in warmer climates, as rat snakes are ectothermic species, they require sunlight and heat to maintain their body temperatures.

​Ptyas is a genus of colubrid snakes. This genus is one of several colubrid genera colloquially called "rat snakes" or "ratsnakes". The generic name derives from Ancient Greek πτυάς, meaning "spitter", which referred to a kind of snake believed to spit venom in the eyes of humans, although in reality none of the Ptyas are known to spit venom.

Colubridae (/kəˈluːbrɪdiː/, commonly known as colubrids /ˈkɒljʊbrɪdz/, from Latin: coluber, 'snake') is a family of snakes. With 249 genera, it is the largest snake family. The earliest species of the family date back to the Oligocene epoch. Colubrid snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica.

While most colubrids are not venomous (or have venom that is not known to be harmful to humans) and are mostly harmless, a few groups, such as genus Boiga, can produce medically significant injuries. In addition, the boomslang, the twig snakes, and the Asian genus Rhabdophis have caused human fatalities.

Some colubrids are described as opisthoglyphous (often called "rear-fanged"), meaning they have elongated, grooved teeth located in the back of their upper jaws. It is likely that opisthoglyphous dentition evolved many times in the history of snakes and is an evolutionary precursor to the fangs of vipers and elapids, which are located in the front of the mouth.

Ptyas carinata, commonly known as the keeled rat snake is a species if colubrid snake. It is found in Indonesia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Cambodia, India, Vietnam, and Singapore.

P.carinata, body is of moderate thickness and the head is wider than the body with large eye, throat is white or cream and grading to dark grey on the belly.

Front part of body colour is dark brownish grey, middle part of body is black and cream with distinctive chequered pattern, posterior part is predominantly cream scattered with black edged scales and the tail is mainly black with scattered pale spots.

This little known species is probably the largest extant species in the diverse colubrid family that includes just over half of living snake species. Known adult lengths of snakes of this species in Taiwan measured anywhere from 1.21 to 2.75 m (4 ft 0 in to 9 ft 0 in). However, the reportedly maximum size was about 4 m (13 ft 1 in) and is characterized by different coloration and pattern in front and distal parts of the body. 

Males reportedly average slightly larger than females. They are probably opportunistic predators on a variety of prey, such as rodents, lizards, frogs and occasionally birds. When threatened it will puff up its neck.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Ptyas

Species : P. carinatus

Binomial name : Ptyas carinatus

(Günther, 1858)

T7 : 1-11-23

Sunbeam snake : Adult and Juvnile

Xenopeltis, the sunbeam snakes, are the sole genus of the monotypic family Xenopeltidae, the species of which are found in Southeast Asia.

Sunbeam snakes are known for their highly iridescent scales. Three species are recognized, each one with no subspecies. Studies of DNA suggest that the xenopeltids are most closely related to the Mexican burrowing python (Loxocemus bicolor) and to the true pythons (Pythonidae).

Xenopeltis unicolor (In Thai: งูแสงอาทิตย์, ngu saeng aatit) is a non-venomous nocturnal sunbeam snake species found in Southeast Asia and some regions of Indonesia.

Other name : Common sunbeam snake and iridescent earth snake.

Sunbeam snake enjoy moist terrain with lots of damp vegetation and mud in which to burrow until nightfall and can often be found burrowing in the muck or under leaves in open areas such as forest clearings, gardens and parks and often encountered in rice paddies.

Sunbeam snakes are a type of constrictor, killing their prey by suffocation in their muscular coils, they are fossorial and spend most of their time below ground. The diet is varied, consisting primarily of frogs, reptiles, including other snakes, and small mammals.

They may bite readily if handled roughly but mostly it will just try to escape if picked up. They also observed to vibrate their tails as if in a rattlesnake fashion when they feel threatened.

Xenopeltis unicolor is a primitive snake known for both its highly iridescent scales and its ability to reproduce quickly, as it is oviparous and as such can lay up to 10 eggs at a time. No subspecies are currently recognized.

Fun fact, Sunbeam snakes have two lungs instead of just a single lung like most snake species. 

An adult Xenopeltis unicolor sunbeam snake grows to an average of about 1m (3 ft 3 in). They are slender and weigh around two and a quarter pounds when fully grown. 

Xenopeltis unicolour a fossorial species, the head is wedge-shaped and narrow with little neck delineation, which makes it easy to push through the soil. Their scales are a dark and shiny gunmetal gray, black, or dark brown, with an iridescent holographic finish. In the shadows, the snakes may appear dark pink or purple.

When light hits the scales of a sunbeam snake, the scales appear to be painted with metallic rainbow halos, similar to the colored surface found on an oily puddle on the pavement, or the colored swirls on a child’s soap bubbles. These rainbow halos may show any color of the rainbow, though purple and orange may be harder to pick out.

Their eyes are small in size compared to their wedge-shaped head and are black or gray in color. Albino sunbeam snakes may be pink or white.

Geographic range of this species is found in China (Guangdong and Yunnan), Myanmar, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, West Malaysia, Penang Island, Singapore Island, East Malaysia (Sarawak), Indonesia (the Riau Archipelago, Bangka, Billiton, Sumatra, We, Simalur, Nias, the Mentawai Islands Borneo, Java and Sulawesi) and the Philippines (Balabac, Bongao, Jolo and Palawan). 

The type locality given is "Java".

Its most defining characteristic is its iridescent, highly polished scales that give this snake its common name.

They have a layer of dark pigmentation just below the surface on each scale that enhances the iridescence. The youngs look very similar to the adults, except that they have a strong white "collar" of scales evident just below the head. This coloration fades within the first year.

They have two cone opsins allowing for the potential of dichromatic color vision. Animal opsins are a 

G-protein-coupled receptors a group of proteins made light-sensitive via the chromophore retinal (or a variant).

Most prominently, they are found in photoreceptor cells of the retina. Five classical groups of opsins are involved in vision, mediating the conversion of a photon of light into an electrochemical signal, the first step in the visual transduction cascade.

Another opsin found in the mammalian retina, melanopsin, is involved in circadian rhythms and pupillary reflex but not in vision.

Humans have in total nine opsins. Beside vision and light perception, opsins may also sense temperature, sound, and chemicals.

Opsins are the universal photoreceptor molecules of all visual systems in the animal kingdom. They can change their conformation from a resting state to a signalling state upon light absorption, which activates the G protein, thereby resulting in a signalling cascade that produces physiological responses.

Xenopeltis unicolor is a primitive form of snake with both boid and python characteristics, which family it belongs to is still a matter of debate.

​

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Xenopeltidae

Genus : Xenopeltis

Species : X. unicolor

Binomial name : Xenopeltis unicolor

Reinwardt, 1827

Pseudorabdion is a genus of snakes of the family Colubridae. Species in the genus Pseudorabdion are found in Southeast Asia.

One of the smallest Reed Snakes, Pseudorabdion longiceps (In Thai: งูพงอ้อหัวยาว, ngu pong ao hua yaw) 

P. longiceps is a semi-fossorial species typically associated with lowland forests but is also known from road cuts and agricultural land. It has been found in both primary and secondary forest, and is also occur in plantations mainly hiding under logs, rocks or leaf litter.

Its colour varies from black, brown to reddish-brown and it is iridescent in strong sunlight or camera flash. Some specimens may have a pale yellow collar at the back of the head. The species ranges from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore to the islands of Borneo.

This dwarf reed is about 18 cm in total length was observed inside the drain at Old Upper Thomson road. When disturbed, it will flip couple of rounds and move into the leaf litter. 

P. longiceps is Non-venomous and nocturnal snake inhabits the forest floor where it forages for insects.

 There is no information on threats to this species, however as it is common and widespread it is not thought to be subject to any major threats.

Dwarf Reed Snake Pseudorabdion longiceps has most recently been assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2011. Pseudorabdion longiceps is listed as Least Concern.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Subfamily : Calamariinae

Genus : Pseudorabdion Jan, 1862

Species : Pseudorabdion longiceps (CANTOR, 1847)

A mating pair capture in shot.

Dendrelaphis is a genus of snakes in the subfamily Ahaetuliinae of the family Colubridae. Species of the genus Dendrelaphis are distributed from Pakistan, India and southern China to Indonesia, Timor-Leste,

the Philippines, Australia, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.

There are over 50 described species. Asian species are known commonly as bronzebacks, while the Australo-Papuan species are simply called tree snakes. All are non-venomous and entirely harmless to humans.

Dendrelaphis is one of five genera belonging to the vine snake subfamily Ahaetuliinae, of which Dendrelaphis is most closely related to Chrysopelea.

Dendrelaphis formosus, aka elegant bronzeback also known as the beautiful bronzeback tree snake, is a snake species in the family Colubridae. (In Thai: งูสายม่านหลังทอง, ngu sai man lang thong)

Head distinct from slender body, eye very large. Head sometimes bulges behind snout to accommodate the eye. Eyes of male individuals larger than those of female individuals.

Scales along middle of back distinctly enlarged. Bronze brown above, a broad black stripe along the snout, across the eye, and partly down the sides of the body. Side of neck with blue skin between the scales. Underside yellowish green. Three black, narrow lines are present along the rear of the body.

This beautiful bronzeback tree snake is native from southern Thailand, Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia to the islands of Sumatra, Borneo and Java. It inhabits lowland forests up to elevations of 600 m (2,000 ft).

Dendrelaphis formosus, aka the elegant bronzeback feeds mainly on tree-dwelling geckoes, frogs and skinks, and is diurnal and fully arboreal. This species is oviparous and not dangerous to humans.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Dendrelaphis

Species : D. formosus

Binomial name : Dendrelaphis formosus (Boie, 1827)

Ptyas fusca, a non venomous snake commonly known as the white-bellied rat snake or brown rat snake,

(In Thai: งูสิงใต้, ngu sing dtai / งูสิงทอง, ngu sing thong) is a species of colubrid snake.

It inhabits lowland and lower montane forest, to elevations of around 1300 metres. This snake is often found patrolling forest streams, it preys on aquatic and riparian fauna including frogs, lizards and other small vertebrates. 

Riparian fauna is a species of diverse array animals that rely on the unique interface between land and water for habitat, food, and breeding mean.

Its body is elongate and slender and tail is extreamly long and whip like, it has a large eye and the pupils are

rounded, tongue is bluish.

The adults range from brown to brick-red colour on the upper surface. Ventral scales are white to pale yellowish in colour. Thick black stripes on either side of the posterior body and tail is a characteristic feature. 

Adult size of the rat snake is max 3m in length. Juveniles often greenish in coloration. The pupil is rounded and large. Its body is elongate and slender, and its tail is extremely long and whip-like. Its head is long and narrow, and distinct from its neck. Its eyes are large, and the pupils are rounded. The base of its tongue is bluish.

When accidentally disturbed it often stays motionless with its neck and anterior part of its body raised, a threatening posture. it may also gently move the anterior part of its body from side to side.

Its typical body colour is brown or reddish-brown, although smaller examples may be greenish. In terms of field identification, the colour and patterning in the middle section of its body is diagnostic : a broad black stripe separates the brown dorsum from the pale belly. A broken, vertebral stripe may also be present.

This species occurs in southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia including the islands of Bangka, Belitung and the Natuna Islands in the South China Sea.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Ptyas

Species : P. fusca

Binomial name : Ptyas fusca

(Günther, 1858)

Gonyosoma is a genus of snakes in the family Colubridae endemic to South Asia.

There are a few distinct morphological characteristics that distinguish Gonyosoma from Elaphe. In scutellation there are 2-3 supralabials that contact the eye, with typically two in G. oxycephalum, and three in G. jansenii. The supralabial at the posterior of the eye is highly arched around the back of the eye. 

The loreal scale is thin and elongate, and appears stretched between the preocular and the nasal. Othe diagnostic features is an elongate left rudimentary lung (70–141 mm), and a distinct hemipenes structure.

These snakes have the ability to laterally compress and inflate the first third of their bodies when threatened. The inflated region is typically recoiled into an S, which is elevated above the horizontal forming a typical striking position. 

The inflation of the body exposes the black and white diagonal bands of the interstitial skin, which is particularly distinct in G. oxycephalum.

Gonyosoma oxycephalum, commonly known as the arboreal ratsnake, the red-tailed green ratsnake, and the red-tailed racer, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to Southeast Asia.

G. oxycephalum is a robust powerful snake, with wide smooth scales on its belly that are ideal for climbing trees and across branches. It has smaller, smooth scales on its back, which is usually bright green or light green and may have a black net-like pattern. A gray-colored morph with a yellow head exists in Panay, in the Philippines.

As some of its common names indicate, the snake has a green body with a red tail, but is usually brown. It also has a dark line horizontally across the eye. On the sides of its black tongue there may be brown and blue colour. The top of the head may be dark green, yellow-green, or yellow in colour.

The female can reach a length of up to 2.4 m (almost 8 feet), while the male is generally a little bit smaller but brighter in coloration. The average life span of G. oxycephalum in captivity is 20 years.

G. oxycephalum reaches sexually maturity at 4 years of age, and its eggs have a hatching time from 13 to 16 weeks. The female lays on average between 3 and 8 eggs usually between September and January and the hatchlings are about 45 cm (18 inches) long.

The red-tailed green ratsnake lives and spends its life in the trees and in cavities of trees. It seldom descends to the ground. When the snake is stressed, it may inflate a bag of air in its neck, making it appear larger in size.

In captivity, it has quite the "attitude" and may strike at or bite an unwary handler. Its temperament can be unpredictable and may change from time to time but an individual may become tame through proper handling.

G. oxycephalum feeds almost exclusively on birds, bird eggs, lizards, and bats. It catches them in mid-air while hanging amongst branches. In captivity, it can be trained to feed on rodents such as mice and rats.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Gonyosoma

Species : G. oxycephalum

Binomial name : Gonyosoma oxycephalum

(F. Boie, 1827)

Lycodon is a genus of colubrid snakes, commonly known as wolf snakes. The New Latin name Lycodon is derived from the Greek words λύκος (lykos) meaning wolf and οδόν (odon) meaning tooth, and refers to the fang-like anterior maxillary and mandibular teeth.

is a species of snake found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and South Thailand. In Thai : งูปล้องฉนวนมลายู (ngu plong chanuan malayu).

The genus Lycodon comprises 70 recognized Species. It is also known as southern bridle snake, Malayan bridle snake. Bridle snakes are so called because of the resemblance of their slender bodies to the leather straps or 'bridles' used to control horses. 

The Malayan Bridle Snake occurs in primary and secondary forests and has a mainly arboreal lifestyle. It is a master climber. Malayan Bridle Snake occurs in two patterns. The top of the head is brown with yellow pigment for both, where creates a masked appearance.

One pattern consists of five yellow, rough-edged and parallel stripes along the spine to the tail. In second variety, chocolate-brown bands cross the vertebral ridge and extend half-way down the sides of the body.

Lycodon subannulatus the malayan bridal snake is oviparousous and arboreal, it's diet consists of geckos, frogs and insects typical of the genus Lycodon. This snake plays a crucial role in forest ecosystems by contributing to ecological balance.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Subfamily : Colubrinae

Genus : Lycodon

Fitzinger, 1826

Species : L. subannulatus

Binomial name : Lycodon subannulatus 

(Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854)

Synonym :

Dryocalamus subannulatus 

(Duméril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)

Dendrelaphis pictus, commonly known as the common bronzeback, painted bronzeback, or Indonesian bronzeback, is a species of colubrid snake found throughout Southeast Asian forests in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, China, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and Singapore. 

Populations from India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar are now considered to belong to the separate species Dendrelaphis proarchos.

Dendrelaphis pictus the painted bronzeback snake, primarily feeds on lizards and frogs. It is capable of grabbing and swallowing prey in mid-air, often starting with the head of the frog. This snake actively searches for its food during the day.

This diurnal species is predominantly arboreal with oviparous reproduction. The Painted Bronzeback (Dendrelaphis pictus) is a versatile snake that thrives in a variety of habitats across Southeast Asia.

Its natural habitat is likely a forest edge, but it has adapted to disturbed and man-made environments, including secondary scrub, parks, gardens, and shrubs. The Painted Bronzeback is known for its adaptability and is commonly encountered in both suburban and rural areas, as well as surrounding islands.

The snake's colouration is olive or brown above with a yellow lateral stripe, bordered below by a dark line between the outer scales and the ventrals. A black stripe on each side of the head passes through the eye, widens or breaks up into spots, separated by bluish-green bands on the nape.  

A black stripe on each side of the head passes through the eye, widens or breaks up into spots, separated by bluish-green bands on the nape. The upper lip is yellow, and the lower surface yellowish or greenish. Length of head and body approximately 740 mm and the tail 440 mm.

The Painted Bronzeback (Dendrelaphis pictus) can grow up to 120 cm in length, with tail being about one-third of the body length. Most individuals are smaller, typically measuring between 1 to 1.5 meters. This species is known for its slender body and is commonly found in Southeast Asia.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Dendrelaphis

Species : D. pictus

Binomial name : Dendrelaphis pictus

(Gmelin, 1789)

Calamaria is a large genus of dwarf burrowing snakes of the family Colubridae. The genus contains 66 recognized species and is endemic to Asia.

Species in the genus Calamaria share the following characteristics. The eight to 11 maxillary teeth are subequal; the anterior mandibular teeth are somewhat longer than the posterior ones. The head is not distinct from neck; the eye is small, with a round pupil; the nostril is pierced in a minute nasal scale. No loreal, internasal, or temporal scales are present; the preocular can be present or absent; the parietals contact the labials. The body is cylindrical, with smooth dorsal scales, without apical pits, in 13 rows. The tail is short; the subcaudals are paired.

Calamaria schlegeli is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. The species is known commonly as the red-headed reed snake, white-headed reed snake and pink-headed reed snake. It is native to Southeast Asia, where it occurs in the Malay Peninsula (Malaysia, Singapore), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia), and in several Indonesian islands, including Sumatra, Java, Bali

Calamaria schlegeli lives in forest undergrowth. It sometimes emerges on paths and in yards and gardens. It burrows for cover and feeds on small prey such as worms and insects. This small, attractive, non-venomous snake with a bright pink-red head, and no colouration on the tail. The dark dorsal colour exhibits a blue-green iridescence under strong light. The ventral surface is grey-white and not to confuse this species with the Blue Malayan Coral Snake and the Red headed krait snake.

This non venomous red-headed snake Calamaria schlegeli is sometimes confused with the venomous blue Malayan coral snake (Calliophis bivirgatus) and the red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps), in an example of Batesian mimicry where a non-venomous animal protects itself by appearing similar to a venomous one.

There is some similarity between this species and the Blue Malayan Coral Snake Calliophis bivirgata, however in the latter the belly is bright red.

 ** As for the Blue Malayan Coral Snake it is to recognise by its red head, tail and belly. The dorsal surface is dark blue to black, and most populations have a broad blue stripe on each flank.

​** And as for the Red headed krait the head is bright red, sometimes orange or yellow, and this colour extends slightly onto the neck. The short tail is also bright red, sometimes orange or yellow, and this colour extends slightly onto the lowermost part of the body. The belly is pale.

Care should be taken not to mistake between the species Pink-headed Reed Snake and the Blue Malayan Coral Snake and the Red headed krait snake.

 The specific name, schlegeli, is in honor of German herpetologist Hermann Schlegel. 

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Calamaria

Species : C. schlegeli

Binomial name : 

A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854

Lycodon capucinus, also known as the Oriental wolf snake, Common Wolf Snake (Indian Wolf Snake) In Thai: งูปล้องฉนวนสร้อยเหลือง (ngu plong cha nuan soy lueang) is a species of colubrid snake, which is commonly found in the Indo-Australian Archipelago. This species is named after their enlarged front teeth, which gives them a muzzled appearance similar to canines, it also makes the snout somewhat more squarish than other snakes.

Lycodon capucinus, a slender-bodied small snake that ranges from barely three feet to less than one meter. Most wild-caught specimens usually reach less than these lengths. Coloration is adapted for life underground and on the forest floor. Shades of jet black, reddish-brown or dark gray with speckles, blotches and spots of white or pale yellow scattered over the body are its usual colors.

There is also a distinct white coloration around its neck. Their color patterns vary from one geographic location to another. There are albino-colored ones which are very rare among this snake species. The snout is duck-bill-shaped for digging in soft or sandy ground. They have enlarged front teeth, but these are not used to inject venom. Like many other colubrids, they possess true fangs near the rear of their mouths and they will use these to inject venom into their prey. However, this species is relatively benign (not harmful) to humans.

Though the wolf snake is non-venomous, it is quite a nervous snake when picked up or handled and will not hesitate to bite. They may also move their tails in a to-and-fro motion much like a rattlesnake when they feel threatened. A fossorial animal, it loves burrowing down the earth but is most often found in open ground, on rocks or in low vegetation. Sometimes showing a semi-arboreal behavior. A nocturnal creature, it is most active during the night, but is also observed during daybreak.

Most captive specimens become tame after some time and with proper handling. In the wild, Lycodon capucinus feeds mainly on small lizards such as geckos and they are also among the top predators of skinks which makes it common to humans due to the abundance of prey near and in homes. They may also devour small frogs, if available. In captivity, they may be trained to feed on slender fishes such as goby or lizard-scented pinkie mice, though the latter proves to be harder.

The IUCN listed this species as of 'Least Concern.' Though a very common snake, it is seldom seen. Continuous destruction of primary and secondary forests, conversion of fertile lands to agricultural and residential areas as well as indiscriminate human killings can threaten the survival of this animal. It is endangered in numerous parts of mainland Asia and peninsular Southeast Asia.

This species is known to occur in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern China, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines and the Indonesia islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali, Sulawesi and the Lesser Sundas.

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Lycodon

Species : L. capucinus

Binomial name : Lycodon capucinus

F.Boie, 1827

​Dendrelaphis caudolineatus is a common species of colubrid snake known commonly as the striped bronzeback or bronze tree snake.

It occurs in a variety of habitats including closed forests, open secondary growth and scrubland. It is active by day, and is generally arboreal preferring to move amongst low trees and shrubs. It often comes to ground, however, and has been sighted in grassy areas near to woodlands as well as the margins of water bodies, probably in search of frogs.

The species is best identified on the basis of its thick black lateral stripes on a white background, and its brown dorsal surface. It lacks the black eye-stripe which is present in most other bronzebacks. The top of the head and neck are bronze.

The eye is large, and the head somewhat wider than the moderately slender body. Unlike other bronzebacks, the vertebral scales are not enlarged but are narrow in shape. Its lower cheeks and lips are pale yellow.

​In addition to frogs, this snake also feeds on lizards and, reportedly, young birds in their nest. The Striped Bronzeback ranges from southern Thailand, through Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philippines.

It is erroneously called 'garter snake' in the Philippines. It is not venomous and it is the most commonly sold snake as a pet. Though in captivity, they don't live as long as in the wild.

Dendrelaphis caudolineatus is a rather small and thin snake, it can reach a length of 180 centimeters but is usually closer to 140 cm.

The males are usually thinner than females but are more colorful, ranging from a reddish shade or bright chestnut brown, to a shiny bronze color. The females are usually dull-colored, and more stout-bodied than the males. It is also observed that females of this species tend to be less active than the males.

​It is mostly arboreal but rarely climbs higher than 4 meters and is mostly found in the open ground or on grassy plains. It has been recorded in most habitats in its range, from coastal lowlands to mountainous areas up to 1500 in elevation. It feeds mainly on lizards and tree frogs.

​Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Colubridae

Genus : Dendrelaphis

Species : D. caudolineatus

Binomial Name : Dendrelaphis caudolineatus

The reticulated python (Malayopython reticulatus) is a snake species in the family Pythonidae native to South and Southeast Asia. In several range countries, it is hunted for its skin, for use in traditional medicine, and for sale as a pet.

Malayopython reticulatus is an excellent swimmer, it has been reported far out at sea and has colonized many small islands within its range. It is among the three heaviest snakes. Like all pythons, it is a non-venomous constrictor. People have been killed (and cases have been reported eaten) by reticulated pythons.

The reticulated python has smooth dorsal scales that are arranged in 69–79 rows at midbody. Deep pits occur on four anterior upper labials, on two or three anterior lower labials, and on five or six posteriorlower labials.

The reticulated python is the largest snake native to Asia. More than a thousand wild reticulated pythons in southern Sumatra were studied and estimated to have a length range of 1.5 to 6.5 m (4.9 to 21.3 ft) and a weight range of 1 to 75 kg (2.2 to 165.3 lb). Reticulated pythons with lengths more than 6 m (19.7 ft) are rare, though according to the Guinness Book of World Records, it is the only extant snake to regularly exceed that length. 

One of the largest scientifically measured specimens, from Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia, was measured under anesthesia at 6.95 m (22.8 ft) and weighed 59 kg (130 lb) after not having eaten for nearly 3 months.

The reticulated python lives in rain forests, woodlands, and nearby grasslands. As with all pythons, the reticulated python is an ambush hunter, usually waiting until prey wanders within strike range before seizing it in its coils and killing by constriction.

Its natural diet includes mammals and occasionally birds. Small specimens up to 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) long eat mainly rodentssuch as rats, whereas larger individuals switch to prey such as small Indian civet and binturong, primates, and pigs weighing more than 60 kg (130 lb).

As a rule, the reticulated python seems able to swallow prey up to one-quarter its own length and up to its own weight. Near human habitation, it is known to snatch stray chickens, cats, and dogs on occasion. Among the largest documented prey items are a half-starved sun bear of 23 kg (51 lb) that was eaten by a 6.95 m (22.8 ft) specimen and took some 10 weeks to digest. At least one case is reported of a foraging python entering a forest hut and taking a child.

The reticulated python is oviparous, adult females lay between 15 and 80 eggs per clutch. At an optimum incubation temperature of 31–32 °C (88–90 °F), the eggs take an average of 88 days to hatch. Hatchlings are at least 61 cm (2 ft) in length.

The reticulated python is among the few snakes that prey on humans. Attacks on humans are not common, but this species has been responsible for several reported human fatalities, in both the wild and captivity. 

Considering the known maximum prey size, a full-grown reticulated python can open its jaws wide enough to swallow a human, but the width of the shoulders of some adult Homo sapiens can pose a problem for even a snake with sufficient size.

Reports of human fatalities and human consumption (the latest examples of consumption of an adult human being well authenticated) include :

In early 20th-century Indonesia: On Salibabu island, North Sulawesi, a 14-year-old boy was killed and supposedly eaten by a specimen 5.17 m (17.0 ft) in length. Another incident involved a woman reputedly eaten by a "large reticulated python", but few details are known.

In the early 1910s or in 1927, a jeweller went hunting with his friends and was apparently eaten by a 6 m (19.7 ft) python after he sought shelter from a rainstorm in or under a tree. Supposedly, he was swallowed feet-first, contrary to normal snake behaviour, but perhaps the easiest way for a snake to actually swallow a human.

In 1932, Frank Buck wrote about a teenaged boy who was eaten by a pet 25 ft (7.6 m) reticulated python in the Philippines. According to Buck, the python escaped, and when it was found, a human child's shape was recognized inside the snake, and turned out to be the son of the snake's owner. Among a small group of Aeta negritos in the Philippines, six deaths by pythons were said to have been documented within a period of 40 years, plus one who died later of an infected bite.

In September 1995, a 29-year-old rubber tapper from the southern Malaysian state of Johor, was reported to have been killed by a large reticulated python. The victim had apparently been caught unaware and was squeezed to death. The snake had coiled around the lifeless body with the victim's head gripped in its jaws when it was stumbled upon by the victim's brother. The python, reported as measuring 23 ft (7.0 m) long and weighing more than 300 lb, was killed soon after by the arriving police, who shot it four times.

In October 2008, a 25-year-old woman appeared to have been killed by a 13-foot (4.0 m) pet reticulated python. The apparent cause of death was asphyxiation. The snake was later found in the bedroom in an agitated state.

In January 2009, a 3-year-old boy was wrapped in the coils of a 18 ft (5.5 m) pet reticulated python, turning blue. The boy's mother, who had been petsitting the python on behalf of a friend, rescued the toddler by gashing the python with a knife. The snake was later euthanized because of its wounds.

In December 2013, a 59-year-old security guard was strangled to death while trying to capture a python near the Bali Hyatt, a luxury hotel on Indonesia's resort island. The incident happened around 3 am as the 4.5-m (15-ft) python was crossing a road near the hotel. The victim had offered to help capture the snake, which had been spotted several times before near the hotel in the Sanur, Bali, area and escaped back into nearby bushes.

In March 2017, the body of Akbar Salubiro, a 25-year-old farmer in Central Mamuju Regency, West Sulawesi, Indonesia, was found inside the stomach of a 7 m (23 ft) reticulated python. He had been declared missing from his palm tree plantation, and the people searching for him found the python the next day with a large bulge in its stomach. They killed the python and found the whole body of the missing farmer inside. This was the first fully confirmed case of a person being eaten by a python. The process of retrieving the body from the python's stomach was documented by pictures and videos taken by witnesses.

In June 2018, a 54-year-old Indonesian woman in Muna Island, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, was killed and eaten by a 23-ft python. The woman went missing one night while working in her garden, and the next day, a search party was organized after some of her belongings were found abandoned in the garden. The python was found near the garden with a large bulge in its body. The snake was killed and carried into town, where it was cut open, revealing the woman's body completely intact.

Malayopython reticulatus is the world's longest snake and listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its wide distribution.

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Pythonidae

Genus : Malayopython

Species : M. reticulatus

Binomial name : Malayopython reticulatus