Ubin : 13-12-24

Bungarus commonly known as kraits is a genus of venomous snakes in the family Elapidae. Bungarus contains some species that are among the most venomous land snakes in the world. They have a highly potent, neurotoxic venom, which can induce muscle paralysis. Clinically, their venom contains mostly presynaptic neurotoxins, which affect the ability of neuron endings to properly release a chemical communication mechanism to the next neuron.

Following envenomation with bungarotoxins, transmitter release is initially blocked (leading to a brief paralysis), followed by a period of massive overexcitation (cramps, tremors, spasms), which finally tapers off to paralysis. These phases of envenomation may or may not be experienced in all parts of the body, they may or may not be experienced simultaneously.

The severity of the bite itself and the actual dosage of venom delivered plays a role in the intensity of symptoms. As kraits are mainly nocturnal, encounters with humans are rare during the daytime. Bites mainly occur after sunset, and are often (initially) painless, thus, a bite may go unnoticed if the victim is sleeping or otherwise does not see or notice the krait, further prolonging envenomation damage within the body.

Still whenever possible medical treatment should be sought posthaste, as a bite from a krait is considered potentially life-threatening. All venomous snake bites must be taken seriously as an immediate medical emergency. Typically, victims will start to notice severe abdominal cramps accompanied by progressive muscular paralysis, and frequently starting with ptosis. As no local symptoms are usually seen, a patient should be carefully observed for tell-tale signs of paralysis (e.g. the onset of bilateral ptosis, diplopia, and dysphagia), and subsequently treated (as quickly as possible) with antivenom.

Frequently, little or no pain occurs at the site of a krait bite, which can provide false reassurance to the victim. The major medical difficulty of envenomated patients is the lack of medical resources (especially intubation supplies and mechanical ventilators in rural hospitals) and potential for ineffectiveness by the antivenom.

Given that the toxins alter acetylcholine transmission which causes the paralysis some patients have been successfully treated with cholinesterase inhibitors, such as physostigmine or neostigmine, but success is variable and may be species-dependent, as well.

If death occurs, it typically takes place about 6-12 hours after the krait bite, but can be significantly delayed. The usual cause of death in that situation is respiratory failure—suffocation by complete paralysis of the diaphragm. Even if patients make it to a hospital, subsequently entering a permanent coma (and even brain death from hypoxia) may occur, given the potential for long transport times to get medical care, in some regions.

Mortality rates caused by bites from the members of this genus vary by species; according to University of Adelaide Department of Toxicology. Bites of kraits depend on numerous factors, such as the venom yield and the health status of the victim.

The genus of Bungarus is native to Asia. Often found on the floor of tropical forests in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Southern China, they are medium-sized, highly venomous snakes with a total length (including tail) typically not exceeding 2 metres (6 ft 7 in).

Kraits are nocturnal and ophiophagous, preying predators at night chiefly upon other snakes including those of their kinds, although occasional hunt for small rodents, amphibians and lizards most species are with banded patterns acting as a warning sign to their predators. They are seldom encountered during daytime and are highly alert at night. If disturbed they tend to coil up with the head underneath the body for protection, that is which after it had failed from fleeing in their first choice.

In spite of being generally docile and timid, some species are known to thrash fiercely when caught for relocation. Repeated provocation may result in bites which are the last resort of the snakes. kraits are capable of delivering highly potent neurotoxic venom which is medically significant with potential lethality to humans. The genus currently holds 18 species and 5 subspecies.

Kraits are oviparous, releasing a clutch of 12 to 14 eggs in piles of leaf litter. The female usually stays with them until they hatch, it can be found in tropical and subtropical South and Southeast Asia and Indochina, ranging in the west from Iran, east through the Indian subcontinent (including Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, & Sri Lanka) and into Southeast Asia (including the island of Borneo, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, the

Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam).

Kraits usually range between 1.0 and 1.5 m (3 ft 3 in and 4 ft 11 in) in total length (including tail), although specimens as large as 2.0 m (6 ft 7 in) have been observed.

The banded krait (B. fasciatus) In Thai (ngu sam liam, งูสามเหลี่ยม) is an extremely venomous species of elapids endemic to Asia, from Indian Subcontinent

through Southeast Asia to Southern China.

It may grow as large as 2.125 m (6 ft 11.7 in). Most species of kraits are covered in smooth, glossy scales arranged in bold, striped patterns of alternating black and light-colored areas.

This may serve as aposematic colouration in its habitat of grassland and scrub jungle. The scales along the dorsal ridge of the back are hexagonal. The head is slender, and the eyes have round pupils. Kraits have pronounced dorsolateral flattening, which causes them to be triangular in cross section.

While this species is generally considered timid and docile, resembling other members of the genus, its venom is highly neurotoxic which is potentially lethal to humans.

The banded krait is easily identified by its alternate black and yellow crossbands all of which encircle the body. The head is broad and depressed and it is not distinct from the neck. The eyes are black. It has arrowhead-like yellow markings on its otherwise black head and has yellow lips, lores, chin, and throat. The tail is relatively small, about one-tenth the length of the snake.

The banded krait occurs in the whole of the Indo-Chinese subregion, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesian archipelago, and southern China. The species is common in the states of West Bengal, Odisha, Mizoram, Assam, Manipur and Tripura of India, Nepal and Bangladesh, but becomes progressively uncommon westwards in India.

It has been recorded eastwards from central India through Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and southern China (including Hainan and Hong Kong), Malaysia and the main Indonesian islands of Borneo (Java and Sumatra), as well as Singapore.

Banded kraits may be seen in a variety of habitats, ranging from forests to agricultural lands. They inhabit termite mounds and rodent holes close to water, and often live near human settlement, especially villages, because of their supply of rodents and water. They prefer the open plains of the countryside. Banded kraits are shy, not typically seen, and are mainly nocturnal. When harassed, they will usually hide their heads under their coils, and do not generally attempt to bite, though at night they are much more active and widely considered to be more dangerous then.

During the day, they lie up in grass, pits, or drains. The snakes are lethargic and sluggish even under provocation. They are most commonly seen in the rains.

The banded krait feeds mainly on other snakes, but is also known to eat fish, frogs, skinks, and snake eggs.

The venom of the banded krait mainly contains neurotoxins (pre- and postsynaptic neurotoxins) with LD50 values of 2.4 mg/kg –3.6 mg/kg SC, 1.289 mg/kg IV and 1.55 mg/kg IP. The quantity of venom delivered averages out at 20–114 mg. Engelmann and Obst (1981) list the venom yield at 114 mg (dry weight).

The major clinical effects caused by the venom of this species include vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and dizziness. Severe envenomation can lead to respiratory failure and death may occur due to suffocation.

Banded krait venom can damage the kidneys if injected. A clinical toxicology study gives an untreated mortality rate of 1–10%, which may be because contact with humans is rare and when bites do occur, the rate of envenomation when biting defensively is thought to be very low. Currently, polyvalent antivenoms are available in India and Indonesia.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Elapidae

Genus : Bungarus

Species : B. fasciatus

Binomial name Bungarus fasciatus

(Schneider, 1801)

Immportant to take Notes :

Krait bites mainly occur after sunset as they are highly alert at night, the bite are often (initially) painless. In Krait bites, rarely if ever does local tissue destruction and necrosis appear. One can find minimal edema and pain at the bite site.

Fang marks may be present as one or more well defined punctures, as a series of small lacerations or scratches, or there may not be any noticeable or obvious markings where the bite occurred. The absence of fang marks does not preclude the possibility of a bite (especially if a juvenile snake is involved).

In general, the fang marks from a Krait are made from a quick, snapping motion. Multiple bites inflicted by a single snake or by more than one snake are also possible, and should be noted if present (See Special Considerations below).

The presence of fang marks does not always imply that the injection or deposition of venom into the bite wound (envenomation) actually occurred.

Signs and Symptoms of Envenomation :

Neurologic / Neuromuscular : These signs and symptoms will usually manifest earliest. Not all of these will necessarily develop, even with severe envenomation.

Ptosis

Glossopharyngeal palsy (dysphagia)

Ophthalmoplegia

Strabismus, blurring vision

Pupils dilated

Proximal limb paralysis

Intercostal & diaphragmatic paralysis (respiratory failure)

Increased oral secretion

Ataxia

Headache

Drowsiness

Coma

Facial paralysis (Malayan kraits)

Decreased tendon reflexes (Malayan kraits)

General : These symptoms typically manifest within one to three hours, though for Kraits it can be up to 12 hours following the bite.

The brighter and more vibrant the color is in the animal kingdom, the more poisonous or venomous the animal can be. Always remind ourself see no touch and just enjoy the species how the way it is when we cross path with it.

There are 16 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera (Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes, in two genera (Micruroides and Micrurus) all in different countries.

Calliophis is a genus of venomous elapid snakes, one of several known commonly as oriental coral snakes or Asian coral snakes. Coral snakes are not poisonous. Instead, they are highly venomous and very dangerous to humans, they have one of the most potent venoms in the world, next to a black mamba. Yet, unlike most venomous snakes, they are considered less dangerous than many snake species because the way coral snakes deliver their venom is less effective than others.

Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season.

Coral snakes bite with their sharp fangs. But unlike most venomous snakes, the coral snake’s fangs cannot be retracted and are relatively weak. Coral snakes cannot easily penetrate through human skin, especially through leather boots due to their fixed fangs and tiny mouth. Their venom can be highly toxic, but they cannot effectively deliver a copious amount of venom in one bite, making their venom less deadly.

Compared to other venomous snakes, coral snake bites do not usually show injury or significant tissue damage. When coral snakes bite, they hold on, giving rise to the popular myth that they must chew to envenomate. Since their fangs are relatively short, weak, and fixed to the roof of their mouth, they may hold on to their prey or adversary for some time to deliver the venom effectively.

Bites from coral snakes can result in muscular paralysis. While their venom is not delivered as effectively as other deadly snakes, coral snakes can still be dangerous to humans because of the symptoms their bites can bring. Coral snake bites can be extremely painful and can cause muscular paralysis. The coral snake’s venom is one of the most potent venoms in the animal world because it contains powerful neurotoxins.

​Coral snake bites can bring intense pain, and if left medically unattended, it can even lead to cardiac arrest. The neurotoxins are responsible for the rapid paralysis and respiratory failure in the coral snake’s smaller prey. In humans, coral snake bite symptoms can appear a few hours after the bite, including swelling.

Sometimes, coral snake bite symptoms can be delayed up to 12 hours, making people think that there might have been no envenomation that happened. But when left untreated by an antivenom, the neurotoxins will begin to disrupt the nervous system, interrupting connections between the brain and the muscles.

Then, more severe symptoms may develop, such as :

• Slurred speech

• Intense pain

• Double vision

• Muscular paralysis

• Signs of shock

• Change in skin color

• Headache

• Nausea and vomiting

• Convulsions

• Drooping eyelids or ptosis

• Stomach pain

• Difficulty swallowing

• Respiratory or cardiac failure

Neurotoxins block significant neurotransmitters called acetylcholine that help activate body muscles. Envenomation can lead to blockage, resulting in weakness, paralysis, respiratory failure, and even cardiac arrest. Snakes of the genus Calliophis are semifossoria.

There is wide variability in color ranging from light brown to highly contrasting black and reds. Virtually all specimens will exhibit black and white block patterns on the ventral scales and a bright reddish orange underside of the tail. The head is small in indistinct from the neck. 

Calliophis intestinalis, commonly known as the banded Malayan coral snake, is a species of venomous elapid snake endemic to Southeast Asia. It is found in Borneo, Indonesia, Java, Malaysia and Singapore.

Calliophis intestinalis are rather brightly coloured with red or bright orange dorsal stripes along their brown or black bodies. They are generally rather small in size, ranging from 40cm to 60 cm in total length. The Banded Coral Snake C. intestinalis is not aggressive and are rather shy. They are more likely to get away than bite. But when provoked or handled, they can lash out and attack.

Calliophis intestinalis possesses an extremely toxic venom like other Elapids, when startled or threatened they will twitch wildly and displays its red tail and the brightly colored bands on its undersurface which serve as a warning signal and sometimes bite, and can also dart quickly under leaf litter and flatten body against the ground to hide or make it difficult for predators to pick up.

It should be noted that the venom gland of this species runs from the head down the first third of the body making it capable of delivering a larger dose than its diminutive head size indicates. This small species possesses a potent venom, and human fatalities from its bite have been recorded.

Calliophis  intestinalis had a small head barely distinct from slender body. Dark brown on dorsal surface, with a red stripe along the middle of the back. Ventral surface is white with black bands, underside of the tail bright red with black bands. Highly venomous, but can be confused for Oligodon octolineatus (harmless Striped Kukri Snake).

Calliophis intestinalis is a ground dwelling species inhabits forests areas, and sometimes overgrown areas of parks and gardens, it feeds mainly on other snakes, particularly the tiny Brahminy Blind Snake. It can be identified by the reddish-orange vertebral stripe, and the red tail. On either side there is a pale lateral stripe. When threatened, the snake turns over to reveal the underside, which is dramatically patterned in black and white.

Four subspecies are recognized, including the nominotypical subspecies.

• Calliophis intestinalis everetti (Boulenger, 1896)

• Calliophis intestinalis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768)

• Calliophis intestinalis lineata (Gray, 1835)

• Calliophis intestinalis thepassi (Bleeker, 1859)

Nota bene : A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Calliophis.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Elapidae

Genus : Calliophis

Species : C. intestinalis

Binomial name : Calliophis intestinalis

(Laurenti, 1768)

Calliophis is a genus of venomous elapid snakes, one of several known commonly as oriental coral snakes or Asian coral snakes. Snakes of the genus Calliophis are semifossorial.

Calliophis bivirgatus is a species of snake in the family Elapidae known commonly as the blue coral snake or blue Malayan coral snake. It is native to Southeast Asia.

This terrestrial snake occurs in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Burma. It lives at 100 to 1,100 metres (300 to 3,600 ft) in elevation.

There are three subspecies:

C. b. bivirgatus – Indonesia.

C. b. flaviceps – Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and Burma.

C. b. tetrataenia – Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.

This species Calliophis bivirgatus was assigned to the new world coral snake genus Maticora until

phylogenetic studies revealed this species to be nested within the tropical coral snake species clade Calliophis and sister species to Calliophis intestinalis, the banded Malaysian coral snake.

This is a medium-sized coral snake with a slender body. The adult can reach 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) long.

It has a red head, tail and belly. The back is dark blue to black in color, and it usually has a large blue or white stripe on each flank.

The snake, especially when juvenile, is often confused with the pink-headed reed snake (Calamaria schlegeli) as they share similar habitat and appearance. But the latter is much smaller, reaching a maximum length of 50 cm (20 in).

The reed snake is nonvenomous, while the coral snake is potentially lethal. They also are very similar to another venomous snake, the red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps).

C. bivirgatus is considered semi-fossorial and is found in the leaf litter of primary and secondary forests. It preys on other snakes. When threatened it usually flees, but it may remain in place with its red tail erect as a defensive message.

The Blue Malayan Coral Snake (Calliophis bivirgatus) ​is a beautiful, but highly venomous, front-fanged elapid. It inhabits primary and secondary forest, in lowland and lower montane areas. In common with many other elapids in Southeast Asia, its primary food source is other snakes.

C. bivirgatus dwells amongst the leaf-litter on the forest floor, but seems to emerge early to mid-morning especially when night-time rain has made the leaf litter wet. It is instantly recognisable by its red head, tail and belly. The dorsal surface is dark blue to black, and most populations have a broad blue stripe on each flank. Care should be taken not to mistake this species for the Pink-headed Reed Snake Calamaria schlegeli.

This species Calliophis bivirgatus has unusually long venom glands, extending to 25% of the length of the body. Unlike other snakes of the family Elapidae, its venom does not contain a neurotoxin. The toxic element is instead a unique cytotoxin called calliotoxin that causes near instantaneous paralysis by blocking the victims sodium channels.

The venom also contains phosphodiesterases, which promote the release of adenosine, causing in turn hypotension, inflammation, and neurotransmitter blockade in prey items and other bite victims. This ability is especially important as their prey consists mostly of other venomous snakes. 

There is no known antidote, though there is hope that the venom may eventually prove useful in the management of chronic pain in humans.

While all venomous snake bites are a serious worry, most take longer than you'd expect to kill a fully grown human. That's because venom typically works by slowing down the body's vital systems until the victim drifts off to death.

But the blue coral snake (Calliophis bivirgata) is different. These beautifully coloured snakes from South East Asia have a venom that's so powerful, it can trigger all of the victim's nerves to fire at once, instantly trigging full body spasms, paralysis, and a quick, horrifying death.

These snakes are 'killer's killers'. They specialise in preying on other venomous snakes, including young king cobras. With its combination of electric blue stripes and neon red head and tail, the blue coral snake is arguably one of the world's most striking species of snake. It also has the biggest venom glands in the world, extending over a quarter the length of its body.

Blue coral snakes typically grow to be about 1.8 metres in length (5.9 feet) and stay pretty thin their entire lives. The snakes' venom has caused two reported human deaths over the past century, and there's currently no anti-venom for their bite. But the good news is they generally tend to avoid humans where possible.

The reason their venom is so ridiculously potent is because the snakes love to eat animals that are also deadly, such as cobras, meaning that if they had a weaker venom that operated like other snakes' venom, they would open themselves up to the possibility of dying at every meal.

So the blue coral snakes have evolved a type of venom that causes their prey to instantly freeze with muscle spasms, paralysing their prey in this manner, much like how a spider or scorpion uses venom, allows them to take control of the situation which is pretty important.

Their blazingly fast venom does not kill immediately. Instead, it turns on all the nerves of their fast-moving prey who are also potential predators at one time, almost instantly resulting in a frozen state.

While previous research has shown that this is how blue coral snakes hunt, it was unclear how the venom could be so potent. After analysing the chemical makeup of the venom, the team identified a new type of toxin called calliotoxin.

A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and is derived from the word toxic.

Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors.

Toxins vary greatly in their toxicity, ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses. Toxins are substances created by plants and animals that are poisonous (toxic) to humans. Toxins may also include some medicines that are helpful in small doses, but poisonous in large amounts.

Most toxins that cause problems in humans come from germs such as bacteria. Other toxins that cause problems include metals, such as lead, and certain chemicals in the environment.

Calliotoxin works by attacking the prey's sodium channels, the pathways that turn nerves on and off. Calliotoxin is a short chained neurotoxin that causes the victim's sodium channels to have delayed inactivation, causing them to remain open. This causes all of the neurons to fire at once and producing complete physical paralysis and a rapid death.

The snake's venom turns these channels on and keeps them on, causing paralysis to take over the body by 'frying' the nervous system. This is the first time a snake has been shown to use this strategy which is more similar to the venom of cone snails or scorpions.

There is no known antidote, though it is hoped that the venom may eventually become useful in creating painkillers for the management of chronic pain in humans.

Some animals cause their prey's nerves to become fried by a massive shock to the system," Fry explains. "A cone snail instantly paralyses a fish into a rigid death mask, fully tensing the muscles in a tetanus-like spasm, this keeps the fish from escaping the immobile snail. Now it has been shown there is a snake that kills the same way.

Understanding sodium channel disruption has been a long-term pursuit of pharmaceutical researchers, because it's thought that it could hold the keys to unlocking better pain treatments for those with chronic ailments.

So now that researchers know that blue coral snakes produce a venom that affects these channels, the team hopes that their findings might lead to better pain medicine down the road.

This venom hits a particular type of sodium channel that is important for the treatment of pain in humans, Fry said. "This is another in the long line of useful discoveries from venom that could benefit human health.

The bad news is that blue coral snakes are becoming rarer in the wild. The team reports that up to 80 percent of the snake's natural habitat has been destroyed by human development.

Hopefully, researchers can do something to save these beautiful snakes, because there are still many unknowns to be figured out, including how they could better our understanding of human health.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Elapidae

Genus : Calliophis

Species : C. bivirgatus

Binomial name : Calliophis bivirgatus

(F. Boie, 1827) 

The Equatorial spitting cobra (Naja sumatrana) also called the Malayan spitting cobra, golden spitting cobra, Sumatran spitting cobra, Palawan spitting cobra and Black spitting cobra is a species of spitting cobra found in Southeast Asia.

The Equatorial Spitting Cobra, or Sumatran Cobra, Naja sumatrana is commonly encountered in lowland, secondary, disturbed habitats : the species has adapted to heavily disturbed habitats in towns and villages. It appears to be less abundant in intact, primary lowland forests.

In Singapore, where it is called the Black Spitting Cobra, it is often encountered in leafy suburbs and occasionally in high density housing estates. When not active these snakes may retreat to cooler, sheltered places such as behind household clutter in gardens, or in cavities behind open drains and garden walls.

This is a highly venomous species which should be treated with caution. Typically this snake prefers to avoid confrontation and is not considered 'aggressive', however large adults will stand erect, expand their hood and hiss loudly if feeling threatened. If the perceived attacker does not back off from this threat display the snake will then attempt to spray venom into the eyes of its tormentor. Unless such venom is washed away immediately, permanent damage to the tissues surrounding the eye can occur. Envenomation through a bite from this species may result in death.

The Equatorial spitting cobra typically measures 0.9 to 1.2 meters (3.0–3.9 ft) in length, with some individuals reaching up to 1.5–1.6 meters (4.9–5.2 ft). Its body is dorsoventrally compressed and sub-cylindrical posteriorly, with a distinct, elliptical head, short rounded snout, and medium-sized eyes with round pupils. The dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique, and the species lacks hood markings.

Coloration varies geographically : a yellow form is common in Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia, while a black form occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and parts of Indonesia and the Philippines. Juveniles often differ in color from adults.

In most of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo this snake is black to bluish-black in colour, with pale markings in the throat area particularly in juveniles. In other parts of the Malay Peninsula, particularly the northern areas, and Sumatra and adjacent islands the species is brown in colour. Some populations may possess narrow, pale bars on the dorsum. This species can be found in elevations up to about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) above sea level in mainly primary and secondary tropical forests (including dense jungle terrain); however, it has also been found in gardens, parks, and in urban areas where it may come in contact with humans.

It is a terrestrial and mainly diurnal snake that feeds mainly on rodents and frogs but will also feed on other snakes, lizards and small mammals. Though not too aggressive in nature (unlike the yellow specimens reported from Thailand being highly aggressive and more prone to spitting in copious amounts without running out of venom), these snakes can and will readily spit venom, even from up in the trees, when they are cornered or threatened. They will also strike and bite.

The body is thick, and the tail short. The head is distinct from the neck, and the snout is rounded. Das (2010) describes the species as nocturnal, however in Singapore it appears to be almost exclusively diurnal. Prey items include rats, mice and some species of amphibian, in particular the Asian Toad.

This species occurs in Southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Borneo and parts of the Southern Philippines, renowned as one of the worlds most dangerous snakes. The Black Spitting Cobra in Singapore is a very versatile, agile, and formidable foe.

Growing to a mere avergae 5 feet ( 1.5m ) in length, the Spitting Cobra is more deadly than a snake which bites. Not aggressive by nature, but will attack quite readily If agitated or frightened. Its usual habitats are forests and rural areas, but can now be found occasionally in outbuildings and garages.

The Cobra will spit its' venom at great speed and to a distance of almost 2 meters. The snakes prey is blinded by the venom making it easier to catch. The venom is neurotoxic, which attacks the nervous system. If the spitted venom enters the eyes, human victims may be temporarily or permanently blinded.

Like other cobra species, this snake possesses postsynaptic neurotoxic venom. The venom also consists of cardiotoxins and cytotoxins. Although the venom of the Equatorial spitting cobra (N. sumatrana) exhibited the common characteristic enzymatic activities of Asiatic spitting cobra venoms, the protein composition of the Equatorial spitting cobra venom is distinct from venoms of the other two sympatric spitting cobras, the Javan spitting cobra (N. sputatrix) and Indochinese spitting cobra (N. siamensis).

However, this species' venom contains low protease, phosphodiesterase, alkaline phosphomonoesterase and L-amino-acid oxidase activities, moderately high acetylcholinesterase and hyaluronidase activities and high phospholipase A2.

Cardiotoxins represented 40% of the snake's venom protein, higher than sympatric cobras: N. sputatrix (35%), N. siamensis (30%), and N. kaouthia (18%; non-spitting cobra). This species presented an IV LD50 of 0.5 mg/kg (Malaysia).

Victims whom are bitten will initially feel pain and the bitten area may begin to swell. Heart palpitations, headaches and nausea may rapidly follow soon after the bite is received. As the venom spreads through the body, breathing may become difficult an the victim may sweat profusely. Organ failure could lead to coma then death if anti venom is not administered quickly.

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Elapidae

Genus : Naja

Species : N. sumatrana

Binomial name : Naja sumatrana

Müller, 1890

The king cobra, also known as the hamadryad, is a venomous snake species in the family Elapidae, endemic to forests from India through Southeast Asia. It is threatened by habitat destruction and has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2010. It is the world's longest venomous snake.

It preys chiefly on other snakes and occasionally on some other vertebrates, such as lizards and rodents.

It is a highly venomous and dangerous snake when agitated or provoked that has a fearsome reputation in its range, although it is typically shy and avoids confrontation with humans when possible.

The king cobra is a prominent symbol in the mythology and folk traditions of India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It is the national reptile of India. The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields.

The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales.

Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head. Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long.

The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement. The head of a mature snake can be quite massive and bulky in appearance. Like all snakes, it can expand its jaws to swallow large prey items.

It has proteroglyph dentition, meaning it has two short, fixed fangs in the front of the mouth, which channel venom into the prey. These are behind the usual "nine-plate" arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids, and are unique to the king cobra.

The king cobra typically weighs about 6 kg (13 lb). A captive one at the London Zoo grew to 5.71 m (18.7 ft) before being euthanised upon the outbreak of World War II. The heaviest wild specimen was caught at Royal Island Club in Singapore in 1951, which weighed 12 kg (26 lb) and measured 4.8 m (16 ft). An individual kept at Bronx Zoo weighed 12.7 kg (28 lb) and was 4.4 m (14 ft) long in 1972.

The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from the Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.

Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth.

When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne vibration and detects moving prey almost 100 m (330 ft)

Following envenomation, it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.

The king cobra's diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards, when food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and rodents by constricting its prey using its muscular body before swallowing down the capture. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one due to its slow metabolic rate.

The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually slinks off when disturbed but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly. 

Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but will reared up and struck in self defence when cornered. Most victims bitten by king cobras are snake charmers. Hospital records in Thailand indicate that bites from king cobras are very uncommon.

The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.

The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 Hz with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice.

Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.

The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. These snakes are diurnal. Breeding usually occurs from January through April. King cobras are oviparous and lay 21 to 40 white, leathery eggs. The female pushes leaves and branches into a nest pile where the eggs are incubated by the elevated temperatures of decomposition.

The female remains on top of the nest to guard the eggs, and the male remains close by. During the brood care period, the king cobra tends to be very aggressive toward approaching humans. The eggs of the king cobra incubate during spring and summer, hatching in the fall.

The female is gravid for 50 to 59 days. The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leave litter, starting from late March to late May.

Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the center and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs.

Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Female stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz).

The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed. The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.

The king cobra's venom consists of cytotoxins and neurotoxins, including alpha-neurotoxins and three-finger toxins. Other components have cardiotoxic effects. It can deliver up to 420 mg (6.5 gr) venom in dry weight per bite, with a LD50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection, 1.5 to 2.18 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection, and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection.

The toxins affect the victim's central nervous system, resulting in severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and eventually paralysis. If the envenomation is serious, it progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. The affected person can die within 30 minutes of envenomation.

Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in mammals. Large quantities of antivenom may be needed to reverse the progression of symptoms.

Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralize venom of the king cobra.

In Thailand, a concoction of turmeric root has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death.

Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care.

Not all king cobra bites result in envenomation, but they are often considered of medical importance.

Clinical mortality rates vary between different regions and depend on many factors, such as local medical advancement.

A Thai survey reports 10 deaths out of 35 patients received for king cobra bites, whose fatality rate posed (28%) is higher than those of other cobra species. Department of Clinical Toxinology in University of Adelaide gives this serpent a general untreated fatality rate of 50–60%, implying that the snake has about a half chance to deliver bites involving nonfatal quantities of venom.

In Southeast Asia the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by poaching for its meat, skin and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.

A new study reveals independently evolved lineages of the snake across Asia dated 26 November 2024.

Four species of king cobra have be individually identified and not just one species.

Researchers used genetic data, physical characteristics, and records to classify these lineages.

The taxonomic revision identifies the species as the :

(1) Northern king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah),

(2) Sunda king cobra (Ophiophagus bungarus),

(3) Western Ghats king cobra (Ophiophagus kaalinga),

(4) Luzon king cobra (Ophiophagus salvatana), found exclusively on Luzon Island in the northern Philippines.

Ophiophagus hannah populations are now restricted to regions including eastern Pakistan, northern and eastern India, the Andaman Islands, Indo-Burma, and central Thailand.

Ophiophagus bungarus was resurrected from older literature to describe populations in the Sunda Shelf region, covering the Malay Peninsula, Greater Sunda Islands, and parts of the southern Philippines.

The newly described Ophiophagus kaalinga and Ophiophagus salvatana are home to Western Ghats and Luzon Island respectively.

In 20212, P. Gowri Shankar and his team studied 148 whole specimens and five skeletal samples, examining body width, banding patterns, dental structures, and scale configurations.

Using molecular phylogenetic tools, they identified genetic and physical differences between the species. Their work highlighted genetic variation. The latest study builds on that to describe physical traits, such as the pronounced banding in O. bungarus compared to O. hannah.

The zoologist, Theodore Cantor, first described the king cobra in 1836, naming it Ophiophagus hannah, derived from the Greek Ophiophagus, meaning snake-eater. Since then, scientists have speculated about differences in the species based on geographic locations.

For instance, king cobras in Thailand have more white body bands, while those in the Philippines don’t have bands at all.

Current king cobra antivenoms are produced in Thailand. However, variations in venom composition, even within species, highlight the need for region-specific antivenoms. This study could pave the way for more targeted treatments.

A full-grown king cobra is yellow, green, brown or black, typically with yellow-white crossbars or chevrons. The belly may be uniform in color or ornamented with bars. The throat is light yellow or cream-colored.

The juveniles are jet-black, with yellow or white crossbars on the body and tail and four similar crossbars on the head.

King cobra is regarded as a fierce and aggressive snake and they are called king cobras because they can kill and eat their own same species cobras and its length and size give it an awe inspiring appearance.

The king cobra's deadly fangs are almost 0.5 inches (8 to 10 millimeters) long fixed to the upper jaw angled back into the snake's mouth, the fangs help push the prey on its path to the stomach.

The king cobra's average size is 10 to 12 feet (3 to 3.6 meters), but it can reach 18 feet (5.4 meters).

King cobras can be found in Southeast Asia, ranging from northern India, east to southern China, including Hong Kong and Hainan, south throughout the Malay Peninsula and east to western Indonesia and the Philippines.

They prefer streams in dense or open forest, bamboo thickets, adjacent agricultural areas and dense mangrove swamps. They often stay near streams, where the temperature and humidity are relatively constant and spend almost a fourth of their time up in trees or bushes.

King cobra eyesight is better than most snakes'. It's good enough to see a moving person almost 330 feet (100 meters) away. The cobra's hiss is much lower than most snakes', more like a dog's growl.

It's hissing sound is produced by tiny holes in the trachea and is resonated by the lung. Although the king cobra is undoubtedly a very dangerous snake, it prefers to escape unless it is provoked. The cobra only attacks people when it is cornered, in self-defense or to protect its eggs.

When in a threat display, these snakes can raise the anterior part of their body about three to four feet

(1 to 1.2 meters) off the ground and are able to follow their enemy in this position over considerable distances. The king cobra will also hiss and flatten its neck ribs into a hood. It will assume an upright posture without the hood extended in order to see over bushes or tall grasses.

King cobra venom contains a variety of toxins, including :

• Three-finger toxins (3FTx): The most abundant toxin in king cobra venom, making up 76.4% of the venom proteome. The majority of these are short-chain alpha-neurotoxins, which are the most lethal components of the venom.

• Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs): Another major component of king cobra venom.

• Cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP): Makes up 7.7% of the venom proteome.

• Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): Makes up 7.0% of the venom proteome.

• Vespryn: Makes up 1.8% of the venom proteome.

Symptoms from a king cobra bite can appear as early as 15 to 30 minutes after the bite.

These symptoms include :

• Neurological and neuromuscular symptoms, such as:

• Respiratory paralysis

• Ophthalmoplegia

• Palatal paralysis

• Glossopharyngeal paralysis

• Limb paralysis

• Convulsions

• Head drooping

• General symptoms, such as:

• Pain around the bite site

• Nausea and vomiting

• Urticaria and fever

The only way to save a victim of a cobra bite is to :

• Inject the appropriate antivenom shortly after the bite

• Put the victim on an artificial respirator

If you're bitten by a snake, you should :

• Call local emergency services immediately

• Remove any jewelry or accessories that could hurt the patient once swelling occurs

• Keep the bitten area below the heart

• Let the patient rest and stay calm

• Take a photo of the snake if possible

Ophiophagus bungarus, the Sunda king cobra, is a species of king cobra that inhabits areas south of the

Kra Isthmus or land bridge joining the Malay Peninsula with the rest of southeast Asia or Indochina.

The countries it is found in include southern Thailand (deep south), western Malaysia, Singapore and offshore islands, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali, and some of the islands of the southern Philippines Archipelago.

Class : Reptilia

Order : Squamata

Suborder : Serpentes

Family : Elapidae

Subfamily : Elapinae

Genus : Ophiophagus

Species : O. bungarus

Binomial name : Ophiophagus bungarus

Schlegel 1837